Is COVID-19 the plague that wipes out mankind? Is COVID-19 part of the plagues of the end time? No it isn’t. The End Times may be close, but they have not started yet. Maybe 2022 or just after.
COVID-19 does appear to be a man made laboratory virus, which mysteriously appeared in China. However, no one is going to know for sure if COVID-19 was being designed as a weapon of war or not. But COVID-19 can be a debilitating virus that can cause death if someone has other serious health issues.
Influenza (Flu) and COVID-19 are both contagious respiratory illnesses. However, different viruses cause them. COVID-19 is caused by infection of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which was first identified in 2019. The flu is caused by infection through the various influenza viruses. COVID-19 seems to spread more easily than flu. However, the spread of the virus that causes COVID-19 should slow down as more people become fully vaccinated against it.
Getting Things Into Prospective
The Third Plague pandemic from 1855 to 1960 was a major bubonic plague pandemic that began 1855 in Yunnan, China. It was literally spread by ships all around the world. The contaminated ship dwelling rats disembarked at various ports and so did the infected sailors and passengers. During the pandemic there were about 12 million noted deaths in India and China. Perhaps it was over 15 million worldwide. Nobody really knows the true number of deaths due to the lack of records kept. The pandemic was considered active until 1960, when worldwide casualties dropped to 200 per year. It should be noted that the world population in 1855 was about 1,260 million and expanded to about 3 billion in 1960.
The Asiatic Flu or Russian Flu although stated as occurring between 1889 and 1890 actually lasted until 1895. The viral pandemic could have been a disease caused by either that of an influenza virus strain of either A/H3N8 or A/H2N2 or perhaps the human coronavirus OC43. This viral pandemic occurred through various blunders with the cause and treatment, hence many results are uncertain. The first outbreak occurred in Bukhara of the Russian Empire between 1889 and 1890. It spread in Russia by the use of their railroads and spread worldwide by ship due to transatlantic travel. It spread in less than six days to become a pandemic. The Asiatic Flu or Russian Flu killed about 1 million people out of a world population of about 1.5 billion. It was the last great pandemic of the 19th century and is among the deadliest pandemics in history.
The Spanish Flu started in the USA in February 1918 and was caused by the H1N1 influenza A virus. It became a pandemic as it infected around 35% of the world population before becoming endemic by 1920. About 500 million estimated cases were recorded with 25 to 50 million deaths. However testing was crude and a lot more people could have had it and possibly the death rate could have been between 17.4 and 100 million. People would die within 5 days of infection. It was estimated that between 1 to 6 per cent of the global population would to die due to the infection of the Spanish influenza virus. During this time period the world’s population was about 1,800 to 1,900 million.
The Asian Flu pandemic between 1957 and 1958 was a global pandemic of influenza A virus subtype H2N2. It originated in Guizhou in southern China. The number of deaths caused by the Asian flu pandemic is estimated between one and four million worldwide, making it one of the deadliest pandemics in history. The world’s population was about 2.860 to 2.900 billion during this time period.
The Hong Kong Flu outbreak between 1968 and 1969 was caused by an H3N2 strain of the influenza A virus. It killed between one and four million people globally. It is recorded among the deadliest pandemics in history. The world’s population was about 3.500 to 3.600 billion during this time period.
The Swine Flu pandemic occurred between January 2009 and August 2010. The H1N1 influenza virus caused it. It was the third recent flu pandemic involving the H1N1 virus. The virus appeared to be a new strain of H1N1 that resulted from a previous triple re-assortment of bird, swine, and human flu viruses, which further combined with a Eurasian pig flu virus, which lead to the term “Swine Flu”. Although it began in January 2009, it was first discovered in the United States in April 2009. The World Health Organization from June 2009 to August 2010 declared it as a pandemic. The reported number of deaths was 284,000 people. However, due to conflicting reports from various health sources, the number of infections and deaths seem to be less than what they could have actually been. The world’s population was about 6.788 to 6.916 billion during this time period.
How Lethal Is Covid-19?
Is the COVID-19 virus as lethal as the Spanish Flu? No! The recorded cases and death rate of COVID-19 is lower, whilst the world population is much higher with 7.9 billion in 2021. Up until the 29th of December 2021 there were 283 million reported cases with 5.41 million deaths worldwide. The case and death counts are much, much lower than the Spanish Flu in number without taking the world population into account.
COVID-19 is an infectious Coronavirus disease, which is caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Most people who fall sick with COVID-19 will experience mild to moderate symptoms and recover without special treatment. However, some will become seriously ill and require medical attention. People with underlying health conditions are most at risk. Signs and symptoms of COVID-19 include respiratory symptoms and include fever, cough and shortness of breath. In more severe cases, infection can cause pneumonia, severe acute respiratory syndrome and sometimes death. Coronavirus can also affect the inner surfaces of veins and arteries, which can cause blood vessel inflammation, damage to very small vessels and blood clots. This can bring on heart problems.
Vaccination
The most acceptable vaccines against COVID-19 are produced by BioNTech, Pfizer, Johnson & Johnson, Moderna, Oxford, AstraZeneca. These vaccines are not designed to cure COVID-19. Their aim is to protect you against COVID-19, especially if you have an underlying health condition.
As with any vaccine there can be side affects due to a myriad of reasons. Today people are vaccinated against a range of bacterial and viral diseases. This is an integral part of communicable disease control worldwide. Vaccination against a specific disease not only reduces the incidence of that disease, it reduces the social and economic burden of the disease on communities.
Those people, who choose to be vaccinated against COVID-19 and perhaps wear a mask, show a regard for their own wellbeing and that of those around them. Unfortunately there are some who feel that vaccination and or mask wearing infringes on their rights. They forget about the rights of others who choose to minimise their risks of being infected by COVID-19. Statistics are starting to show that the non-vaccinated are becoming the super spreaders and that they inturn suffer the most from the affects of COVID-19. There is something in that old adage – Prevention is better that cure.
COVID-19 Symptoms
The most common symptoms are: fever, cough, tiredness and/or loss of taste or smell. The less common symptoms are: sore throat, headache, aches and pains, diarrhoea, a rash on skin, or discolouration of fingers or toes and/or red or irritated eyes. People with mild symptoms who are otherwise healthy should manage their symptoms at home.
The most serious symptoms include: difficulty breathing or shortness of breath, loss of speech or mobility or confusion and/or chest pain. Seek immediate medical attention if you have serious symptoms. Always call before visiting your doctor or health facility.
How COVID-19 Spreads
The virus can spread from an infected person’s mouth or nose in small liquid particles when they cough, sneeze, speak, sing or breathe. These particles range from larger respiratory droplets to smaller aerosols. This is why it is recommended to wear facemasks. It lessens the spread of COVID-19.
Breathing in the virus can infect you. The COVID-19 virus can also remain viable on different surfaces. It can remain viable for up to 4 hours on copper, 24 hours on cardboard and up to 72 hours on plastic and stainless steel. You can be affected by COVID-19 if you are near someone who has the disease or by touching a contaminated surface and then touch your eyes, nose or mouth. The virus spreads more easily indoors and in crowded settings.
On average it can take 5 to 6 days from when someone is infected with the virus for symptoms to show. However it can take up to 14 days in some cases.
A close contact is someone who has had face-to-face contact or has shared a closed space with someone who has tested positive for COVID-19. A close contact has a higher risk than other people in the community of developing COVID-19, including casual contacts.
Quarantine
Quarantining may differ from country to country or even state to state. But in Australia if you are a close contact and even if you have no symptoms in 72 hours, you must continue to self-isolate for a full 10 days. After the 10 day isolation period, a further test is required before being released.
However, in Australia the following applies if you have tested positive for COVID-19: (1) Tested positive, but no symptoms (asymptomatic): If you are fully vaccinated, you can stop isolating if 10 days have passed since you first tested positive, and no symptoms have developed during this time.
If you are unvaccinated or partially vaccinated, you can be released from isolation if at least 14 days have passed since first testing positive and no symptoms have developed during this time.
Some states and territories may release you earlier if you have a negative PCR test before being released and no symptoms have developed.
(2) Tested positive, symptoms improving and no longer have a fever: If you are fully vaccinated, you can stop isolating after 10 days of first testing positive if you have no fever and there is a substantial improvement of respiratory symptoms in the previous 72 hours.
If you are unvaccinated or partially vaccinated, you can stop isolating after 14 days of first testing positive if you have no fever and there is a substantial improvement of respiratory symptoms in the previous 72 hours.
Some states and territories may release you earlier if your symptoms have improved and you have a negative PCR test before being released.
(3) Tested positive, still showing signs of respiratory symptoms: If you are fully vaccinated, you can be released from isolation if it has been at least 14 days since your symptoms began, you haven’t had a fever during the previous 72 hours, there has been a substantial improvement in your respiratory symptoms and you are not significantly immunocompromised.
You may be released earlier if you have 2 consecutive negative COVID-19 PCR tests taken at least 24 hours apart after day 7 from onset of symptoms.
If you are unvaccinated or partially vaccinated, you must meet the same criteria, however your isolation period will be at least 20 days.
(4) Tested positive, significantly immunocompromised: In addition to meeting the above criteria, people who are significantly immunocompromised must meet a higher standard and will require additional assessment. Regardless of your vaccination status, you will be released from isolation when you return 2 negative PCR tests, at least 24 hours apart after day 7 from when your symptoms began. Your doctor should decide whether the COVID-19 symptoms have stopped.
People who have met all of the above criteria are not considered infectious and they can be released from isolation, including a return to a high-risk setting such as a healthcare facility.
Anyone recovering from a COVID-19-related illness should continue to follow all physical distancing rules, ensure proper hand hygiene and wear a mask or PPE where appropriate.
But note! All of these procedures can change anytime on the whim of any government.
Omicron
Omicron is a variant of COVID-19. It is milder, but more highly infectious then the Delta variant. It replicates up to 70 times more than the Delta variant. Many countries deem that the Omicron variant will affect the majority of their population.
The PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) test detects the genetic material from the COVID-19 virus. The nose swab PCR test for COVID-19 is an accurate and reliable test for diagnosing COVID-19. But due to Omicron, people who do not really need to be tested are abusing the testing sites. Hence the PCR testing facilities are being swamped and the test results are being released too late for beneficial quarantine.
Governments in Australia now deem that COVID-19 Home Testing is the way to go because Omicron is a milder form of COVID-19. The COVID-19 Home Test kit is an over-the-counter, rapid self-test that detects SARS-CoV-2 antigen and provides results in 15 minutes. People will be able to purchase a test kit from some supermarkets, pharmacies or online from selected suppliers. This will take a load off the hospital and vaccination clinics. Those who test positive are to self-isolate. Only those with critical symptoms will need hospitalisation.
However, is Omicron the mutant to end COVID-19? Around 1920 the Spanish flu mutated and ended. Some researchers are now thinking that Omicron could actually hasten the COVID-19 virus transition from pandemic to endemic. Something endemic is regularly found among particular people or in a certain area.
If this is the case and COVID-19 becomes endemic, then in the future, the COVID-19 virus vaccines could be used the same way that Flu vaccines are utilised for those who are deemed to need it.
All we can do is hope that COVID-19 becomes endemic, real soon. The sooner the better!
I wish you good health! Look after yourself and get vaccinated. It is pointless to suffer needlessly.
Why do I promote biblical teachings but ridicule church traditions?
Let me begin… The “Bible” is the source of Judeo-Christian teachings and is considered to be of “The Word Of God”, hence is of truth and righteousness. It is written in a way where there are meanings within meanings and more so when you utilise the expressions of the original languages of Paleo-Hebrew and Koine Greek.
The teachings of the bible also encourage one to test what is written, but never to add to or take away from the older teachings. So! From this point of view, I will tell my story.
My Background
As a child I lived a fantastic life and enjoyed the freedom to explore and experience life during the fifties and sixties. I was both loved and punished by my parents in their attempts to guide me in life and I am very grateful for their endeavours.
My parents gave me the traditions of birthdays, christmas, boxing day, easter and bonfire night and as a child I enjoyed every minute of these traditions. I grew up thinking that I had more uncles, aunts and cousins then I actually did. I was taught that the love of family was the most important thing, and it is still very important to me.
Over the course of the trials and tribulations of my life, frustration and even despair was experienced. I walked away from the church and had discussions and arguments with God as my life progressed. A lot of soul searching went on. I even threw away my old tattered Kings James bible.
In my later years I had the need to find my inner persona and spirituality and sought different sources. I also developed a desire to do my own research on ancient history. This quest led me to question my belief in God and creation. Whilst reading about Gilgamesh and the Sumerian nation as being the cradle of civilization, I noticed the similarities that were written in the bible.
Back To The Bible
So! My quest in valuating the bible began. By using the information contained in both the NKJV and NRSV Bibles and with the help of The Book of Yasher (Jasher), I constructed by own timeline of biblical events from Adam to the Apostles of the Messiah. This timeline has proven to be pretty accurate.
Reading and rereading the Bible in order to construct my timeline led me to take an interest in biblical prophecy. I am still reviewing this biblical prophecy to this day.
In reading and rereading the Bible I have come to question the traditions of the church. By church, I mean the greater majority of the churches today, not one in particular.
My Understandings
God’s righteousness evolves around God’s Law, which is deemed to be the Ten Commandments. The Ten Commandments, as given by Moses, is a covenant between God and man. It was broken by both the people of the Kingdom of Israel and later the Kingdom of Judea. Both Kingdoms were lost and never reinstated.
Do not be confused by these Israelite Kingdoms and Israel today. They are not the same, but Israel today is a part of biblical prophecy and it will be decimated.
The Ten Commandments is applicable and binding in both the Old and New Testaments. You have to live by them in order to receive the grace of God. The following of the Ten Commandments is your works of righteousness. Break them, then you sin.
But! What many do not realise is that the Sabbath Day, as quoted in the Ten Commandments, goes beyond the four Sabbath Days of Rest per month. The Sabbath Days also incorporates the seven Feasts Of The Lord.
The Messiah, the Apostles and the Church, up to about 300 AD, abided by the Ten Commandments, Sabbath’s and Feasts Of The Lord. When the Millennial Kingdom is established on earth, the Ten Commandments will be written in both your mind and heart, it will be part of your psyche, and the Sabbath Days and Feasts Of The Lord will be followed. So why doesn’t the Church teach such things today?
The Church
The problems of the traditions of the church today stems from paganism! The Church of Rome from about 325 AD started to change biblical Hebrew Calendation to the Roman Julian Calendation. The Church of Rome then started to fuse Pagan Traditions with the teachings of the Apostles. Christmas became a religious festival in the Church of Rome about 336 AD and Lent and Easter followed. Christmas, Lent and Easter are non-biblical and actually break the covenant of the Ten Commandments.
The decision that I have made to base my religious ideology on that written in the Bible, rather then follow the misguided traditions of church, has not been an easy one for me. It is difficult to give up on traditions held since childhood.
But I seek salvation through redemption. It starts with repentance to gain solace. Then abiding by the Ten Commandments. You must accept the Messiah as both redeemer and saviour. Then start walking in the “Way” of the Messiah as taught in the New Testament.
Adjustment
I have also adjusted my life to suite the Lunisolar Calendation as given by Moses rather than the Gregorian (Roman) Solar Calendation introduced in 1582 AD. I did this so I could follow the Sabbath Days and Feasts Of The Lord as directed in the bible.
I have also been posting biblical teaching videos on Facebook. I am doing this to gain peoples attention to biblical teachings including biblical prophecy.
In regards to biblical prophecy, all has been fulfilled to a certain point. That point being the signing of the Seven Year Covenant! That means that we are about to enter the seven years of Tribulation, that is the one of the End Times.
I personally seek redemption and I want you to do likewise. With Tribulation, turmoil acts like birth pangs, it progressively gets worse. You will know that you are in Tribulation by the signing of the Seven Year Covenant and/or by the Third Temple worship of the Jews.
After three and a half years, the Abomination of Desolation takes place and life becomes dismal. Just a month or so after the Abomination of Desolation, redeeming takes place. This is what I seek and I want you to be redeemed as well.
Plea
I do not want you to suffer the Woes of Tribulation, so if you have not done so, please seek God Almighty today. Start a conversation with God and seek his righteous ways. It seems difficult at first, but it becomes easier as you become more earnest.
Today I see Christmas as a false premise. To me, it is only a get together feast time for family and friends. A time to get together and put the past behind you! But you should do this anytime problems arise. When you read the New Testament, you will understand what I mean. And yes! I still send Christmas cards to those that still follow old family traditions. Knowing one is loved and still thought of is still important to me.
The Church today and its teaching of the traditions of man, has a lot to answer for. Alias! Bible prophecy also answers that.
My minds eye has been opened to a soon to be time, best described as Hell On Earth. I do not want you to take the worldly wide path in life, for I seek a walking companion of the difficult narrow path of salvation.
I am not a preacher, but a Watchman. I warn when I see biblical danger. Only you can save yourself. I beg you to find God – a.s.a.p. When Tribulation kicks in it will be very difficult without God’s protection and you will have less than 3.5 years to repent.
How would you feel if you were duped into thinking that a particular manifesto was a great thing to behold, yet it deceitfully had clauses that could strip of your liberty, sovereignty and even your personal wealth? Would you abide by it, challenge it or totally reject it?
What if a wily and sophisticated politician presented a manifesto of his thoughts and ideas to a worldly body to have it registered and accepted as legal advice?
Would you go along with it? Maybe it would be done in a sneakily manner and you won’t know about it until it has been signed off.
This politician seeking praise would state that we have a complex social and environmental crisis that needs to be solved holistically. He would also affirm that climate change is an all-encompassing threat to the world in which we live.
His manifesto would cover poverty, technology, science and modernism, with criticism about the anonymous influences of mammon, new colonialism and free trade treaties. He would show a preference for cooperative measures rather than have the imposition of austerity measures, when it comes to either national or global financial control.
To get his agenda across the world body, he would insist that we embrace the moral dimensions of problems that we have viewed primarily as scientific, technological and economic in our modernistic viewpoint.
This false manifesto would be presented to the world in such away that it appeases the main stream of thought held by many people. Many people would even see the outline of this manifesto as a blessing. However, the real problem lies in the hidden details. The details of which, will cause tribulation throughout the world.
But how will this wily and sophisticated politician and his false manifesto fool many?
With Regards To Poverty
His manifesto would cover mercy and care for the poor. He of course would desire to be a bridge for helping the poor. He would state that respect for creation and human dignity go hand in hand. Well! It sounds good.
It would state that poor nations are ill prepared to adapt to the effects of climate change and will bear the brunt of its effects. This of course is a commonly held view.
However, there would be statements about there being a dual need to respect and protect our common home. Also, there would be a need to respect and protect the dignity and lives of the poor.
It would be stated that the poorer nations would suffer even more problems in the future. They would suffer in particular from rising sea levels, droughts, warming and extreme weather caused by the burning of fossil fuels.
There of course would be a call to end poverty and share the world’s ecological space.
With Regards To Technology
There would be a push to control aspects of technology. Many today would be in agreeance with this. But one must be careful here, for technology can be used as a two edged sword against its benefits for you.
Greed through technological advancement would be made an issue and that there should be a way to both limit and direct technology. Maybe technology could be used for the progression of healthier, more human, more social, more integral types of services. This of course would be a benefit for all.
Of course, technology based on the use of highly polluting fossil fuels, especially coal, oil and to a lesser degree gas, would need to be progressively replaced without delay.
It would be stated that the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources would make this world more sustainable and reduce global poverty. However, technology used for communication purposes could be seen as being desirable, as long as checks and balances are in place.
It all looks good on the surface. But the problems with renewable energy sources concerning cost of manufacture, requirements of manufacturing and component longevity would be either ignored or hidden.
With Regards To Science
This manifesto would push for a compassionate ecological concern for the planet and people.
The manifesto would have arguments, such as, fossil fuels in general and coal in particular, threaten the poor. Also those fossil fuels are a threat to the prosperity of the poor. Why? Because fossil fuels are the major cause of climate change!
The manifesto would claim that we are witnessing a disturbing warming of the climatic system. This of course would be due to the great concentration of greenhouse gasses in our upper atmosphere. This would promote an urgent need of a true world political authority to govern what needs to be done.
The cyclic of nature of Earth’s environment would be ignored. There would probably be no mention of the Sun’s solar activity affecting our atmosphere. The current tectonic plate movement, which is causing an increase in earthquake activity and volcanism probably, will not come into the equation. Perhaps the current atmospheric pollution caused by volcanic activity would be dismissed.
The manifesto would push the fact that our Earth is our common home. Demands would be made for more ecological conversions, covering personal, communitarian and institutional needs and requirements. There would be calls for ecological solidarity and liberation, for care of the Earth is an integral matter for our survival. Of course, ways of action will be shown and there would be offers of engagement for a new ecological dialogue.
I wonder who would take charge of this?
With Regards To Modernism
The manifesto would stipulate that there is interconnection between nature and people. We should defend the rights of nature and develop a sense of the oneness of humanity.
It would also show that there is an overall decline in human life and a breakdown of society. The current global order needs to be changed. Through mismanagement it destroys the environment, oppresses the multitudes and makes us blind to the beauty of creation.
The manifesto would seek to correct this mismanagement. It would state that we should pursue a form of connectedness through different faith-based groups, civil society and institutions. We should demand climate justice for the destruction of our planet, which is perpetrated by mining companies, businesses, multinational corporations and greedy countries.
All this sounds like the left-wing Marxism, which is currently permeating society throughout the world.
Also, it would be stated in the manifesto that we would have to pay for our ecological debt. There has to be reimbursement for the harm we have done to the environment, communities and individuals that are suffering now and in the future. There would be a need to cultivate a desired ecological culture, as a way of outgrowing our ecological destruction.
But! Will they ignore the fact that the biggest polluters are not necessarily the wealthiest nations! If they do ignore the fact, then the wealthy abiding nations would be penalised in many ways by the actions of the poorer nations that don’t really care anyway.
This manifesto would promote ecological education and faith advocacy for environmental care. Ecological citizenship should be sought as a practical path to witnessing the environment. Also we should be committed to the care of indigenous communities and their cultural traditions.
There would be a call to a better life, a world with more justice, peace, equity and sustainability. A civic renewal!
Looks Can Be Deceiving
On the surface, this false manifesto seems to be stating some obvious true feelings. But! As they say: “The proof is in the pudding”.
However, this false manifesto would also be full of innuendo, things and statements that could be easily twisted to suite the narrative of another agenda.
What if this wily and sophisticated politician was a despot in the making and the worldly body sought absolute power. This false Manifesto could be used to rule the world. Could it be the harbinger to One World Order? Could it seek a commonality in religion and also a commonality in economics?
How is a world body going to change the world’s behaviour in regards to climate change? They would have to coerce the richer nations into changing their political outlook and financial structure. They would have to offer something worth thinking about and of course it would also be a lie. Well! How about the “Great Reset” and what it has to offer.
Time will tell if this false manifesto and the “Great Reset” is a conspiracy or not.
But! Think about this. If the world body signs off on this false manifesto and something like the “Great Reset” comes into play, then you should begin to worry. If it is as bad as the conspiracy theorist’s claim, then all hell will break out. Arguments will break out between family members and groups, nations will come against nation. All will be vying for their rights and the world will be in chaos. The world would be under tribulation.
Could this false manifesto shortly come into being? Oh! Laudato Si. Just wait and see….
May the love of God (Yahuah) and the sacrifice of the Messiah (Yahusha) lead you to salvation.
Dates allow you to give an account of time. Time is usually expressed by minutes and hours or through a calendation of days. Calendation allows you to understand the events of a specific date. Years, months and days allow you to specify a date of an event.
So! What dates are important to you? In a worldly sense: Birth dates are used to celebrate your arrival into this world and to determine your age. Marriage dates are used to celebrate the bond and commitment you make to another. Death dates are used to announce the end of one’s life.
Many today live their life by a particular means of calendation. The advent of this calendation can either be true or false, joyful, pleasing, forbearing, difficult to endure, saddening, sorrowful or even painful beyond belief. It always ends in or with the death of a person or some event. It surely ends with the death of you.
In a righteous spiritual sense: Dates are used to save your soul. Dates are used to express the Sabbath days of rest, the beginning of months and years, the days of celebration and the feasts of God (Yahuah). These are the dates through which you seek the grace and glory of God (Yahuah). If you live your life through this particular means of calendation, you seek salvation and an eternal life.
The advent of this form of calendation leads to days of prayer, the love of God (Yahuah) and salvation through his son the Messiah (Yahusha). These are the dates where you seek redemption from your iniquities and sins. These are the days of joy that lead to your salvation through the Grace of God (Yahuah).
The Written Times
It has been written that those who deny God, (Yahuah), are driven by worldly pleasures and that this world is lorded over by Lucifer. So! If Lucifer is lord of the earthly realm, then this world is a sinful place. You must overcome the trappings of this world.
To overcome this world, you must seek the Grace of God (Yahuah) through the repentance of your iniquities and sins. Just start by talking to God (Yahuah). The more you talk, the more you will pray. The more you earnestly pray, the closer to God (Yahuah) you will get.
The Second Coming of the Messiah (Yahusha), (which is soon to come), is at the end of Tribulation. The Messiah (Yahusha) is coming to dethrone Lucifer and set up his Millennial Kingdom. If you give over to the trappings of this world, then you will abide with Lucifer. Lucifer gets sent to Hell! Do you want to go with him?
If you want to be saved, you must prepare yourself for this event, the return of the Messiah (Yahusha). He (Yahusha) will come as a thief in the night. If you have not prepared yourself, you will be left behind to face the miseries that follow in the Great Tribulation. You do not want to go through such tribulation; it will destroy many.
God’s (Yahuah’s) Dates
The dates that God (Yahuah) has set upon this material realm are coming to fruition at a rapid rate. The period of God’s (Yahuah’s) Grace ends within the Great Tribulation. You do not want to be here to suffer the Woe’s of the Wrath of God (Yahuah). You want to seek the Grace of God (Yahuah) before you die. The sooner the better for you!
So! What dates has God (Yahuah) set to seek his Grace before you die?
Moses gave Enoch’s Calendation to the Israelites, which started with Genesis 1:14-18 The History of Creation (New King James Version). 14 Then God said, “Let there be lights in the firmament of the heavens to divide the day from the night; and let them be for signs and seasons, and for days and years; 15 and let them be for lights in the firmament of the heavens to give light on the earth”; and it was so. 16 Then God made two great [luminaries] lights: the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night. He made the stars also. 17 God set them in the firmament of the heavens to give light on the earth, 18 and to rule over the day and over the night, and to divide the light from the darkness. And God saw that it was good.
So! This type of calendation is lunisolar for both the sun and moon are required. The sun rules the day, so the day starts at dawn and ends at dusk. The moon rules the night, but is part of the day. So the moon rules between dusk and the dawn of the next day. The stars and the moon determine the seasons of the days ahead. The moons lunation is about 29.53 days per month, hence the moon determines the month and how many days are within a month. There are of course 12 months to a year, which contains 4 seasons of 3 months each.
It should be pointed out at this time that the original Enoch calendation had 360 days in a year with 30 days in a month. It appears that when the windows of heaven were opened and the all the fountains of the great deep were broken up, the rotation of the moon around earth and earth’s rotation around the sun changed. Noah’s calendation changed after the “Flood” to 364 days a year with 29 or 30 days in a month. It appears that God (Yahuah) was making the earth anew again after the Flood. However, after the Tower of Babel, 365 days a year came into effect.
The New Moon occurs either on the 29th or 30th day of the lunar month. The day after the occurrence of the New Moon is called New Moons Day. New Moons Day is the 1st day of the following month and begins at dawn.
The Earth rotates around the sun every 365.242 days. So! The sun rules the years. Because there is a difference of time between the rotation of the moon around the earth and the earth’s rotation around the sun, a sabbatical month is added every so many years to realign the time of calendation. This occurs seven times over a nineteen-year period.
Know Your Calendation
God (Yahuah) gives you Grace through your obedience to His word.
Exodus 12:1-2/6 The Passover Instituted (New King James Version): 1 Now the Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt, saying, 2 “This month shall be your beginning of months; it shall be the first month of the year to you. 6 Now you shall keep it until the fourteenth day of the same month. Then the whole assembly of the congregation of Israel shall kill it at twilight.
So! What calendation are you following? Have you noticed something strange here?
The Gregorian Calendation starts the year with January. Passover and Easter are intertwined and occur at various times between March and April. Yet! God (Yahuah) is telling you that the Passover occurs on the 14th day of the 1st month and this month is the first month of the year for you. You cannot find the Grace of God (Yahuah) through the Gregorian calendar, for it is based on the sun only. It is solar calendation, designed by man.
The Grace of God (Yahuah) is given to you through the righteous works of your faith. The covenant between you and God (Yahuah) is written in the Ten Commandments. Abiding by the Ten Commandments is your works and also the commitment of your faith in God (Yahuah). So! The Grace of God, (Yahuah), is determined by the Ten Commandments.
Feast Times and Dates
Exodus 20:8-11 The Ten Commandments (New King James Version) 8 “Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. 9 Six days you shall labour and do all your work, 10 but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord your God. In it you shall do no work: you, nor your son, nor your daughter, nor your male servant, nor your female servant, nor your cattle, nor your stranger who is within your gates. 11 For in six days the Lord made the heavens and the earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and rested the seventh day. Therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and hallowed it.
However! The Sabbath Days are also amongst the seven Feasts of the Lord (Yahuah). Leviticus 23:1-2 Feasts of the Lord (New King James Version) 1 And the Lord spoke to Moses, saying, 2 “Speak to the children of Israel, and say to them: ‘The feasts of the Lord, which you shall proclaim to be holy convocations, these are My feasts…”.
The Feasts of the Lord (Yahuah) are given in Leviticus 23:3-44, they are as follows: The Feast of the Passover, The Feast of Unleavened Bread, The Feast of Firstfruits, The Feast of Weeks, The Feast of Trumpets, The Day of Atonement and the Feast of Tabernacles. All of these feasts are either determined by Sabbath Days and/or include them.
So! All of these feasts are linked to the Ten Commandments, through Sabbath days. Hence your participation in them, according to their respective allocated dates, shows your respect of God (Yahuah) and your desire of His Grace.
Yes! I know that the priestly acts of redemption for man can no longer be performed, even for these feasts! But! Our Messiah (Yahusha) is a priest forever in the order of Melchizedek. Through his crucifixion, death and resurrection, he became our redeemer and saviour. All you have to do with these feasts is follow God’s (Yahuah’s) personal desires for you. Each feast has personal requirements, which are acceptable to God (Yahuah).
Specified Dates
Now! New Moons Day is a Sabbath Day of thanks giving to God (Yahuah). It is a day of personal consolidation and evaluation; activity is required so it is not a day of rest. But the count of the week starts from it.
Six days you work and on the seventh you rest. So! With simple mathematics, the Sabbath Days of Rest are the 8th, 15th, 22nd and 29th days of every month. The feasts of Unleavened Bread and Tabernacles verify the 15th and 22nd Sabbath Days.
Have you noticed something else? Easter, Lent, Christmas and even Hanukkah are not included as the Feasts of the Lord (Yahuah). The time has come to walk away from any church that celebrate such feasts.
The True Calendation
Importance of Dates
So! What dates are really important to you? If you reject the notion of God (Yahuah), I will guess that you will carry on with your worldly life. What you do in life will be of your choosing. But know this! God (Yahuah) rejects those who reject him. If you reject God (Yahuah) throughout Tribulation and into Woes, both body and soul will be destroyed.
However! If you are seeking the Grace of God (Yahuah) to receive your salvation, then you should consider what I have informed you of. God’s (Yahuah’s) glory increases as you move closer to Him.
Do you want to save yourself? Seek the Grace of God today, before it is too late. Then utilise God’s (Yahuah’s) calendation as a testimony of your faith, both to and in Him.
May the love of God (Yahuah) and the sacrifice of the Messiah (Yahusha) lead you to salvation.
The Precambrian time period covered both the Hadean and Archean Eon’s. The first stage of the Precambrian period was in the Hadean Eon, when planet Earth formed and the sun became its source of heat. The formation of the moon also occurred, then the formation of planet Earth’s magnetic field began.
It is during the Archean Eon that Craton’s formed on planet Earth through tectonic plate movement, terrestrial bombardment and volcanic activity. Continents and Super-continents are formed and deformed through the activity of Craton’s.
A Craton is a large block of crustal rock that forms part of the Earth’s crust. They are considered to have been stable and subjected to very little geological changes over a long period of time. However, Craton’s do undergo a series of events, which include the growth stage, drifting, formation and deformation of both oceanic and continental crusts.
4.600 – 4.500 Bya Our Solar System was created as the Sun developed eight known planets and other hypothetical entities. The planets were gradually built up by the cosmic dust, which revolved around our young sun in a flat disk of gas and dust. The known planets of our solar system all formed within 100 million years of each other, from the gas and debris that our sun had accumulated. Note: Bya = Billion years ago.
Today our Solar System includes four terrestrial planets such as Mercury (4.503 Bya), Venus (4.600 Bya), Earth (4.543 Bya) and Mars (4.600 Bya). There are also two gas giants, Jupiter (4.503 Bya) and Saturn (4.503 Bya), plus two ice giants, Uranus (4.503 Bya) and Neptune (4.503 Bya). It is also thought that our Solar System has at least five dwarf planets, an asteroid belt, numerous comets, and a large number of icy bodies, which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune.
4.500 – 3.800 Bya Jupiter, (it is thought), was originally no bigger than our own planet Earth and was about four times further away from the sun than its current position. However, the Sun’s gravitation pulled the four outer planets closer until they stabilized themselves.
It is thought that Jupiter’s migration took around 700,000 years to reach its present day orbital position around our Sun. The migration probably started about 2 to 3 million years after Jupiter began its life as asteroid, far from the sun.
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, the other three outer planets, (it was also thought), were created about the same time as Jupiter, about 4.503 Bya and were also about four times further away from the sun than they are today. Saturn, Uranus and Neptune would have had similar orbital journeys to that of Jupiter.
Jupiter’s journey resulted in an inward spiral-shaped movement into the solar system, with an orbit around the Sun that resulted in an increasingly narrowing path.
Jupiter was and still is a Trojan asteroid magnet. Trojan asteroids are a large group of asteroids that share Jupiter’s orbit around the sun. Today there are about 50 percent more Trojan asteroids in front of Jupiter than behind it.
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune became the vacuum cleaners and refuse blowers of our Solar System as they took their 700,000 year migrational journey. They interfered with the settling space debris of our Solar System, which resulted in the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB). Their gravitational push and pull effect also had a disturbing, if not destructive affect on the inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
It should also be noted that the “Nice” model of Solar System development claims that the outer planets developed close to the Sun and moved outwards over the same period of time. The formation of our Solar System and planet Earth is ambiguous, so let us stick with the accepted versions for now.
4.400 – 4.270 Bya The Yilgarn Craton, (the bulk of present day Western Australia), was formed and contains zircon crystals in the crust of the Jack Hills portion of the Narryer Gneiss. They have been estimated to date back to about 4.400 billion years ago, (its area is greater than 650,000 km2 / 250,966 mi2), is rich in minerals and iron ore.
4.388 – 3.750 Bya The Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt (NGB), (now located on the eastern shore of Hudson Bay, 40 km southeast of Inukjuak, Quebec), was created due to a sequence of metamorphosed mafic to ultramafic volcanic events. The associated sedimentary rocks forming the greenstone belt are considered to be some of the oldest rocks on Earth. However, due to confliction with aging techniques, the true ages are still unresolved.
Metamorphic Mafic Rocks (e.g. mafic schists and gneisses, amphibolites) are derived from mafic igneous rocks, mainly basalts and andesites and of lesser importance, gabbros.
Metamorphic relates to rock that has undergone transformation by heat, pressure, or other natural agencies, such as the folding of strata or the nearby intrusion of igneous rocks, ie: “metamorphic gneisses”
Mafic is used to describe a silicate mineral or igneous rock that is rich in magnesium and iron, and is thus a portmanteau of magnesium and ferric. Mafic rocks also have an association with volcanic activity.
Ultramafic Rock, are igneous rock, with a very low silica content and rich in minerals such as hypersthene, augite, and olivine. These rocks are also known as ultrabasic rocks. Examples include: peridotite, kimberlite, lamprophyre, lamproite, dunite, and komatiite. Volcanic ultramafic rocks are rare outside of the Archaean eon.
4.300 – 2.570 Bya The Superior Craton is now situated in Canada, covering Quebec, Ontario, S.E. Manitoba and northern Minnesota in the USA. It is the biggest Craton formed during the Precambrian and Archean period. The Superior Craton, (about 1,572,000 km2 / 606,953 mi2 in size), formed about
4.300 billion years ago and underwent geological changes until about 2.570 Bya.
4.100 – 3.800 Bya The Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) occurred approximately between 4.1 to 3.8 billion years ago (Bya). The Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) brought the Hadean Eon to an end and continued into the first Eoarchean Era of the Archean Eon.
The Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) caused the lunar cataclysm, which made significant changes to the Moon’s surface environment. Collisions of asteroids, comets and foreign objects not only affected our Moon; they also affected the early terrestrial planets in our inner Solar System, including Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
It is believe that water originated from the bombardment of the icy constructed comets during this time. Hence it is also thought that they could have sparked the DNA chemical building blocks for life. But all this is just conjecture at this point of time.
Archean (Archaean) Eon (4.000 – 2.500 Bya)
The start of the Archean Eon is only defined by the isotopic age of the earliest rocks and it is divided into four Era’s:
Eoarchean Era (4.000 – 3.600 Bya)
Paleoarchean Era (3.600 – 3.200 Bya)
Mesoarchean Era (3.200 – 2.800 Bya)
Neoarchean Era (2.800 – 2.500 Bya)
The Archean Eon began about 4 billion years ago (Bya) with the formation of Earth’s crust and extended to the start of the Proterozoic Eon 2.5 billion years ago (Bya).
The atmosphere of the early Archean Eon would have been putrid, toxic and anoxic. The Earth’s crust was still forming and volcanic activity was rampant. Volcanic gas permeated the atmosphere that would have contained carbon dioxide (CO2) and some water vapour (H2O). It is thought that photodissociation took place as photons reacted on certain molecules, but the amount of free oxygen (O2) emitted was very small in the beginning of the Archean Eon.
The Eoarchean (Eoarchaean) Era (4.000 – 3.600 Bya)
In this first stage of the Archean Eon, which spans 400 million years, it is thought that planet earth formed a solid crust with lava flowing on the surface. But due to the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) mayhem would have taken place. Impacts would have caused dust and debris to be flung into the atmosphere. Larger objects would have fractured and penetrated the Earth’s crust, whilst spewing lava everywhere.
4.031 – 3.580 Bya The Acasta Gneiss was created and metamorphosed as Tonalite gneiss in the Slave Craton, which is now in the Northwest Territories of Canada.
4.030 – 2.580 Bya The Slave Craton is now part of the North Western Canadian Shield, in the Northwest and Nunavut Territories of Canada. The Slave Craton, (covers about 300,000 km2 / 120,000 mi2), includes the 4.031 billion year old Acasta Gneiss, which has some of one of the oldest dated rocks on Earth. It is dominated by greenstones, turbidite sequences created about 2.730 – 2.630 Bya and plutonic rock formation about 2.720 – 2.580 Bya. Older gneiss and granitoid rocks underlie large parts of the Slave Craton.
The Slave Craton is divided into a West-Central Basement Complex, the Central Slave Basement Complex, and an eastern province, named the Hackett River Terrane or the Eastern Slave Province. These two domains of east and west are separated by a 2.700 billion year old suture, which is defined by two isotopic boundaries running north to south over the Slave Craton.
3.900 – 2.500 Bya It is thought that Chemoautotrophs developed during this period of time. However, no fossils have ever been found for this period of time, nobody knows what the first organism were really like. People only surmise.
Chemoautotrophs are organisms that derive energy for their life functions from inorganic chemicals. They feed on chemicals that are good electron donors, such as hydrogen sulfide, sulfur, or iron. Chemoautotrophs are able to “fix” carbon by taking atoms of carbon, from inorganic compounds, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), and use them to make organic compounds such as sugars, proteins, and lipids.
Most chemoautotrophs are extremophiles, bacteria or archaea that live in hostile environments, (such as deep sea vents of volcano’s), and are the primary producers in such ecosystems.
3.800 Bya A dramatic second phase of planetary migration occurred between the outer planets about 3.800 billion years ago. This was triggered when the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn became briefly locked together. Saturn took exactly twice
as long as Jupiter to complete an orbital circuit around the sun. Not only was there a destabilizing effect
on Jupiter and Saturn, Uranus and Neptune were also affected as well.
This instability was corrected as Jupiter migrated inward, whilst Saturn, Uranus and Neptune migrated outward. After a few million years these outer planets settled into stable orbital positions, very close to those we see today.
The Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) came to end about 3.8 Bya.
3.800 – 3.700 Bya The Isua Greenstone Belt, (now in South Western Greenland), is
considered to be an Archean apatite greenstone belt. It is thought that the belt is aged between 3.7 and 3.8 billion years old. The belt contains variably metamorphosed mafic volcanic and sedimentary rocks. Its origin and association with graphite is a potential used as a biomarker.
The Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt, (now in northern Quebec, Canada), is thought to be 3.750 billion years old. The Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt contains 3 major components: (1) Cummingtonites, (metamorphic amphiboles), which forms most of the belt. (2) Mafic and ultramafic sills that intrude the amphibolites. (3) Banded iron formations in sedimentary rock that formed in sea water.
The formation of these rocks in the Earth’s crust indicated fast flowing steams and rivers, plus extreme tidal activity in the forming oceans. This more than likely was caused by volcanic and tectonic plate activity, both affecting the Earth’s crust.
The Moon was also closer to Earth and undergoing its own volcanic activity. The Moon would have had a massive impact on Earth’s early forming oceans causing extremely high tidal activity. Hurricane-force winds would have been prevalent on planet Earth.
Earth was still experiencing very hostile conditions, hence bacterial activity in an anoxic environment cannot be proven at this time.
3.630 – 2.800 Bya Vaalbara – the unproven supercontinent. It is thought that Proto-continents started to form due to movement of the Earth’s crust. It has been postulated that the earliest known supercontinent was Vaalbara, which formed about 3.636 billion years ago. They surmise that Vaalbara consisted of the Kaapvaal Craton, (now in eastern South Africa), and the Pilbara Craton, (now in north-western, Western Australia). E. S. Cheney named Vaalbara in 1996.
Hence the Pilbara and Kaapvaal cratons are thought to have some of the oldest rocks in the world and they contain well-preserved Archaean microfossils. Athough the existence of Vaalbara is thought to be possibly between 3.630 and 2.800 Bya; it can’t be unequivocally proven.
Paleoarchean (Palaeoarchaean) Era (3.600 – 3.200 Bya)
This is this second stage of the Archean Eon, which spans 400 million years. This era is defined chronometrically and is not referenced to a specific level of rock formation.
3.600 – 3.500 Bya Early Life? They say that undisputed evidence of the early life on Earth seems to date from at least 3.5 billion years ago. So! Did the split between bacteria and archaea occur during this time period? I don’t think so!
Planet Earth was in a state of flux, life requires stable conditions. Life can exist in extreme, but constant conditions. However, tectonic plate movement, volcanism, a toxic atmosphere, tsunami’s, hurricane force winds and soil erosion are not conducive for life formations.
3.600 – 3.300 Bya The Narryer Gneiss Terrane of Western Australia is composed of a
tectonically interleaved and polydeformed mixtures of granite, mafic intrusions and metasedimentary rocks in excess of 3.3 billion years old. However, some parts of the Narryer Gneiss
Terrane have been estimated to be in excess of 3.6 billion years old. These rocks have experienced multiple
metamorphic events over time, resulting in amphibolite or granulite rock
conditions.
3.600 – 2.500 Bya The Dharwar or Karnataka Craton, (now in South India), is part of the Indian Shield. The bedrock in this region
formed between 3.600 and 2.500 Bya.
The Dharwar Craton lies roughly between Chennai, Goa, Hyderabad, and Mangalore in the Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh states. It has been a relatively stable geologic terrain for the past billion years.
3.500 – 3.200 Bya The Singhbhum Craton is now part of the supracrustal provinces in eastern India. It originally started to form about 3.510 Bya, but under went two magmatic episodes between 3.470 to 3.440 Bya and 3.365 to 3.285 Bya.
3.500 – 3.200 Bya The Pilbara area, northern Western Australia, has shown evidence of four large meteorite impacts between 3.5 and 3.2 billion years ago.
Although microbial mat fossils such as Stromatolites were found in 3.48 billion year old sandstone in Western Australia, bacterial activity during this time cannot be proven. Why? Old sand granules can be compacted to form new rock.
Stromatolites are layered bio-chemical accretionary structures formed in shallow water by the trapping, binding and cementation of sedimentary grains by biofilms (microbial mats) of microorganisms, especially cyanobacteria.
3.500 – 3.200 Bya The Kaapvaal Craton, including the Barberton Greenstone Belt, (now
in South Africa), underwent two tectonic episodes of terrane accretion about 3.5 and 3.2 Bya.
The Barberton Greenstone Belt, also known as the Makhonjwa Mountains formed about 3.500 to 3.200 billion years ago. It is situated on the eastern edge of Kaapvaal Craton of the Swaziland–Barberton areas of South Africa. It is known for its gold mineralisation and for its komatiites.
Komatiites are an unusual type of ultramafic volcanic rock.
Ultramafic Rock is an igneous rock with very low silica content and is rich in minerals such as hypersthene, augite, and olivine.
3.500 – 2.600 Bya The Mauranipur and Babina Greenstone Belts in India formed between 3.5 to 2.6 billion years ago due to volcanic activity.
3.460 – 3.300 Bya The Zimbabwe Craton is now in an area located in Southern Africa and is thought to have been formed 3.460 to 3.300 billion years ago and was
part of the ancient continent of Western Gondwana.
The Zimbabwe Craton apparently formed from the suture of two smaller blocks, the Tokwe Segment to the south and the much smaller Rhodesdale Segment, (Rhodesdale gneiss), to the north. These rocky segments have been dated to be around 3.460 billon years old. The Tokwe and Rhodesdale Segments probably stabilized about 3.300 billion years ago.
3.300 – 3.200 Bya The Bastar Craton, (now in India), is composed of Archaean nuclei of tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite gneisses, enveloped by older granite–greenstone belt with banded iron formation (BIF). The Sonakhan Group of Bastar Craton of the
central Indian shield is comprised of volcanic sedimentary rocks.
Mesoarchean (Mesoarchaean) Era (3.200 – 2.800 Bya)
This is this third stage of the Archean Eon, which spans 400 million years. The era is defined chronometrically and is not referenced to a specific level in a rock section on planet Earth.
The Sun’s luminosity during the Mesoarchean Era was thought to be about 70% of its current value. This may have cancelled out any influence of a greenhouse effect that may have been operating. Planet Earth is thought to have had a continual warm surface during this period of time.
Earth’s atmosphere was still greatly affected by volcanic activity. Ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and neon, seems to be present in this early atmosphere. It is thought that the carbon dioxide (CO2) levels were decreasing. However, more water vapour (H2O), nitrogen (N) and additional hydrogen (H), was entering the atmosphere due to volcanic out gassing. The amount of free oxygen (O2) emitted was still small, but increasing.
Volcanic and tectonic plate activity was still greatly affecting the flow of steams and rivers. The moon was still closer to Earth, but slowly moving away and cooling down. The gravitational pull of the Moon would still cause extremely high tidal activity on the forming oceans. The winds would still be of hurricane force.
It is also thought that Photosynthetic organisms started to appear between 3.2 and 2.4 billion years ago and they began to enrich the atmosphere with oxygen. However, there are different opinions about this. At this point of time, planet Earth’s environment would still be too hostile for life.
3.200 Bya The Kaapvaal Craton, Zimbabwe Craton, and Limpopo Belt,
(now in southern Africa), are made from Archaean type terranes and contain crust material from at least 3.200 billion years ago. They are underlain by a thick, (250 km / 160 mile), layer of buoyant mantle from which garnets and diamonds are being produced.
3.100 – 2.500 Bya The
Baltic Shield (or Fennoscandian Shield) is a segment of the Earth’s crust belonging to the East European Craton and was formed by tectonic plate activity between 2.500 and 3.100 billion years ago.
The Baltic Shield represents a large part of Fennoscandia, (now north western Russia and the northern Baltic Sea). It is composed mostly of Archean and Proterozoic gneisses and greenstone. However, the scouring by the ancient glaciers and the acidity of the soil has destroyed all the palaentologically interesting materials, such as fossils.
3.100 – 2.083 Bya Ur – the smallest supercontinent. The landmass known as Ur, (a proposed supercontinent, but smaller than present day Australia), formed about 3.100 Bya. However, Vaalbara, (a previously considered proto supercontinent), was still in existence. Was tectonic plate upheaval taking its toll? Maybe Ur was beginning to form as Vaalbara was breaking up. This is also open to conjecture. Maybe Ur merged with Vaalbara. Anyway, the two Cratons of India, the Western and Singhbhum Cratons, were thought to be apart of Ur.
3.000 – 2.600 Bya The Saharan Metacraton is a description of the continental crust in
the north-central part of Africa. It
contains the oldest rocks in Egypt, which are about 2.700 billion years
old. Where as rocks in southern Libya
and eastern Chad have been dated between 2.900 and 2.600 billion years
old. The original Craton from which this formed could have been 3.000 billion years old.
3.000 – 1.850 Bya The Tanzania Craton is an old and stable part of the continental
lithosphere in central Tanzania. Some
of the rocks are over 3 billion years old.
The Tanzania Craton forms the highest part of the East African
Plateau. The rocks in this area were intruded by granites and under went Migmatization in different events that date
back to 2.900, 2.700, 2.400 and 1.850 Bya.
2.980 – 2.880 Bya The Rio Maria Crust, (now of Southeastern Amazonian Craton, Brazil), formed 2.980 to 2.880 billion years ago due to the dating of the zircons found there.
2.900 Bya The Pongola Glaciation occurred around 2.900 billon years ago. It is currently the oldest known glaciation in the planet’s geologic history.
2.900 – 2.700 Bya It is thought that huge pulses, due to tectonic plate movement, started the formation of island arcs and oceanic plateaus planet wide from 2.900 to 2.700 billion years ago.
2.880 – 2.860 Bya The Rio Maria Granite-Greenstone Terrane, (now in the Amazonian Craton of Brazil), has a formation of Sanukitoid rocks due to a shear event around 2.870 billion years ago. The Rio Maria Granodiorite has yielded zircon of up to 2.880 billion years old. The granites from Rio Maria terrane are aged around this time period.
Sanukitoids are a variety of high-Magnesium (Mg) granitoid andesite found in convergent margin settings.
Granitoid or granitic rock is a variety of coarse grained, plutonic rock — granite or similar which is composed predominantly of feldspar and quartz mica.
Andesite is an extrusive rock intermediate in composition between rhyolite and basalt. Andesite lava is of moderate viscosity and forms thick lava flows and domes.
2.845 – 2.803 Bya The supercontinent Vaalbara finally broke up between 2.803 and 2.845 Bya.
2.803 Bya The landmass Ur also broke up at this point of time. Maybe Ur and Vaalbara collided and broke up together?
Neoarchean (Neoarchaean) Era (2.800 – 2.500 Bya)
This is this fourth and final stage of the Archean Eon, which spans 300 million years. The era is defined chronometrically and is not referenced to a specific level in a rock section on planet Earth.
The Moon by now is having a greater influence on planet Earth. As the Moon orbits around planet Earth it stabilizes the wobbling of Earth on its axis of rotation, which now oscillates between 22.1 and 24.5 degrees. Because Earth is tilted on its axis, the formation of the four seasons makes planet Earth more conducive to the formation of life. But oxygen was still limited to small quantities in the atmosphere.
The Earth’s Crust was thickening and dusty on the surface. Minerals and matter would permeate the surface of Earth’s crust through tectonic plate movement and volcanic activity and in time formed soil and buried Paleosol after certain events.
Also! The scarcity of records for tectonic activity and intrinsic channel changes, hamper the interpretation of stratigraphic events at this time.
Paleosol, (fossil soils), is the matter buried within sedimentary and volcanic deposits. Ephemeral ponds and alluvial sequences could have been the sources of the deposited Paleosol organic matter. However, the Paleosols soils that formed during this period have no relationship in their chemical and physical characteristics to the present day climate or vegetation.
2.720 – 2.655 Bya The Superior Craton, (now in Canada and USA), (it is thought), was going through various geological developments between the western and the eastern part of the Craton. The western part of the Superior Craton appears to have had five major orogenic belt developments such as: The Northern Superior Orogeny 2.720 Bya, the Uchian Orogeny 2.720 – 2.700 Bya, the Central Superior Orogeny 2.700 Bya, the Shebandowanian Orogeny 2.690 Bya and the Minnesotan Orogeny 2.680 Bya.
The eastern part of the Superior Craton appears to have had two major terrane collisions. The first major collision was when the Rivière terrane from the east collided with the Hudson Bay terrane located at the west side 2.700 Bya. A collision with the Uchian orogeny concurrently happened at the south and the west regions.
The second major collision concerns the NE Superior Craton and implies that active anorogenic magmatism took place during the accretion of the Southern Superior Craton, perhaps between 2.690 and 2.655 Bya.
2.720 – 2.100 Bya Kenorland (a supercontinent) was formed about 2.720 billion years ago as a result of a series of accretion events due to tectonic nucleation. The tectonic plate movement, (it has been thought), brought the Kaapvaal, Karelian, Pilbara, and Superior Cratons closer together. These Cratons and other island arcs seemed to have coalesced into one large landmass and formed Kenorland.
It appears that Kenorland suffered from extreme volcanism. Between 2.480 and 2.450 Bya, protracted tectonic magma plume rifting occurred and this contributed to the glacial events between 2.450 and 2.220 Bya. It is thought that Kenorland finally broke up about 2.100 Bya, about 400 million years into Paleoproterozoic Era.
Next we enter the Proterozoic Eon between 2.500 to 0.541 Bya, which was the era of continental shield formation and oxygen build up events.
So! What Really Happened in the Archean Eon?
The people who formulated their premise on the Archean Eon based their ideas on the works of others who preceded them. From time immemorial, people have questioned the origins of the universe and life itself. From the 1800’s people started to chemically analyse the atmosphere and material things, questioned life and the biblical understandings of their time.
Darwin’s book “On the Origin of Species” in 1859, encourage people to challenge biblical reasoning and many people sort to explore their own ideas and concepts about their existence. In 1927 it was thought that an expanding universe could be traced back in time to an originating single point. This became the theory of the “Primeval Atom”. In 1929 it was concluded that galaxies were drifting apart.
The people who chose to reject the biblical understanding formulated the “Big Bang” theory. The “Big Bang” was based on assumptions and conjecture. It is a flawed theory. However, people wanted things to fit into their own reasoning. From the “Big Bang” came the postulating of the formation of the universe and our solar system. Then came the formation of planet Earth and the beginnings of life.
Now the postulating has entered the Archean Eon and the time of reckoning has come. Isotopic testing of rock is flawed due to contamination of material in the “Parent Daughter” relationship of the isotope (half-life) decay of elements. It may well work under specially controlled laboratory conditions, but it fails in fieldwork.
The originality of the material is not known, nor observable in its original state or source. Testing of the same rock using various types of isotopic testing, gives great variations in the dating. In many cases people have averaged different results to fudge the required results to suite their understanding.
None of the data that I have presented in this thesis can really be proven. It isn’t really about lying. It is just about unfounded assumptions and conjecture. What I have presented is fundamentally, the imagination of others.
What are your thoughts about the Archean Era? It seems to be a good story, but slightly perverted.
I have recently painted a picture of our planetary evolution from the Big Bang to the Bombardment Of Earth at the end of the Hadean era. The next step in evolution of life on planet Earth starts in the following Archean era.
However, did the “Big Bang” really happen? Or is it just conjecture?
There is now dispute among many scientists and some cosmologists about the “Big Bang” theory.
It appears that the “Big Bang” idea is an unproven theory and is based on speculation. As more scientific knowledge is explored and physicists delve in quantum physics, the “Big Bang” idea sits on shaky grounds. The techniques and the postulated theories used to extrapolate what happen are now appearing to contradict what is acceptable to the understanding of the physics of space and matter.
So! What is going on?
Well! It is all about what you are willing to believe and what you know. Perhaps the thinking went back to Isaac Newton with his assumptions of an eternal, infinite universe. Although Newton was very clever, he was not always right.
There was dissension between Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton over certain proposed theories. However, Newton’s insight into mathematics, planetary motion and universal gravitation had an indelible influence on many scientists to come. Many of his insights are still applicable today.
Charles Darwin and his thoughts lead others to Darwinism, which became a theory of biological evolution. Darwin postulated many things and wrote many books upon his thoughts. His reasoning was very thought provoking for his time and many scientists have even elaborated on his thoughts and works, even until the turn of this century. But with our current knowledge, Darwinism fails to hold water and is dismissed on many levels.
It seems however, that Cosmology stemmed from the ideas behind Darwinism. But! How?
Many people have questioned religious teaching since the popular 1611 King James Bible was published. Non-believers have always thought about different types of theism to suite their own theology. The “Big Bang” was expounded by many atheists to suite their own ideology.
Since there are more non-believers and atheists than believers of the one almighty God, the idea of the “Big Bang” became mainstream and widely taught without question of authenticity. The belief over the past 50 years or more was if it was written and talked about often, then it must be right. But gossip is not necessarily true or right.
Conceptual Thought
Polytheism perhaps goes back to Nimrod, (great grandchild of Noah). However, most of our knowledge in the western world goes back to ancient Greece. They had gods that were neither transcendent nor capable of creation. The Romans continued the belief in these gods, although they gave them different names.
Many non-believers still carryon with the belief and or attributes of other gods. Non-believers accept the concept of the “Big Bang”, for it seems to fill a void in their understanding. Atheist argued against the biblical idea of creation and the “Big Bang” idea gives them an acceptable viewpoint as to the beginning of our Universe. Others also believe that the Universe has always existed and the creation of planet Earth is just a natural development of the universe.
It is religion that seeds the mind of men. Whatever your religious thoughts are, they affect your outlook to the world around you. People of different religious persuasion will view the world around them differently, accordingly to their religious outlook.
Religion is not just about faith and worship, it is also a pursuit or interest followed with great devotion. Religion goes beyond the 12 major religions of the world, which are considered to be Baha’i, Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, Shinto, Sikhism, Taoism, and Zoroastrianism.
Atheists have no belief in any gods at all; they are supposedly against theism in general. If atheists were against theism, then they would theoretically be against the belief in Satan, demons, angels, karma, heaven, hell or anything else that relies on the supernatural and or biblical perception. But according to their upbringing and subconscious thoughts, they could well harbour such thoughts. But even if they were fundamentally against theism, they would be religious in their thoughts through their own following of non-belief.
Cosmologists are human; they are affected by religion to one point or another.
If Cosmologists were or are of a particular religious persuasion, then their thoughts would oscillate around or upon a particular concept. With the concept of “Birds of a feather, flock together”, the Cosmologists in the past conceived the “Big Bang” theory.
Theoretical Thought
The ideology of the “Big Bang” was derived from the works of others, whether proven or not, to formulate a theorem of understanding of the beginning of our universe. It appears that Cosmologists incorporated the works of Isaac Newton, Immanuel Kant, Pierre-Simon de Laplace, Adriaan van Maanen, Alexander Alexandrovich Friedmann, Willem de Sitter, Albert Einstein, Edwin Powell Hubble and Georges Henri Joseph Édouard Lemaître to formulate their theorem of the “Big Bang”.
In the 1920s and 1930s many cosmologist preferred an eternal steady state Universe, some complained that the beginning of time, (being implied at that time), would import religious concepts into physics.
Fred Hoyle, an English astronomer, coined the term the “Big Bang” theory on BBC radio on the 28th March 1949. He rejected the subjected theory as he went on to promote Panspermia as the origin of life on Earth. Hoyle found the idea that the universe had a beginning to be pseudo science, resembling arguments for a creator.
Hoyle argued that the universe was in a “steady state” and went on to co-formulate the Steady State theory. However, Hoyle’s ideas were not always accepted either. The discovery of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation in the 1960’s helped the “Big Bang” theory to gain victory over the steady state model.
As people of different political, ethnic and religious persuasions entered the realms of Science and Cosmology, questions were asked of the “Big Bang” theory. If the “Big Bang” started with a singularity, what was the singularity?
You cannot get something from nothing, for nothing is void of anything. So! What was the catalyst that caused the event? Was it something known or unknown? Something had to exist, but due to circumstance it was unobservable. This quandary has created a field day for Scientists and Cosmologists of Judeo-Christian faith. They now exploit the singularity as being God, the Creator. Back to “Genesis” they go.
So! Now the “Big Bang” theory is becoming unpopular among some cosmologists. Some still resist the change in thought, whilst others seek new explanations such as the Cyclic Universe.
The Cyclic Universe is an alternative to the Big Bang (Inflation) Theory. It utilizes Brane Theory that starts with a bang caused by the collision of two branes. Who or what the branes are is a mystery. Gravitational Waves and Dark Energy come into play for expansion, but then due to the weakening of gravity, contraction occurs. Contraction continues until the two branes crunch together resulting in a bang to create next cycle. Of course, all this is based on speculation and is unproven.
The Ekpyrotic model suggests our universe is the result of a collision of two three-dimensional worlds on a hidden fourth dimension. But it then continues on with the theories of the Big Bang. Well! That’s way out there.
The proposed Plasma cosmology attempts to describe the universe in terms of the electrodynamic properties of the universe. This proposition is still in the theoretical stage of consideration.
There are other theories, which rely on either a quantum fluid of hypothetical massless particles, multi-universes or even a holographic mirage from another dimension. Gee! Try and prove that with evidence and observation.
Problematic Evidence
The “Big Bang” theory fails scientifically by its disagreement with evidence and observation. If the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation is the end to a observable beginning, then anything between it and the singularity cannot be observed and it is just speculation. And that speculation appears to be based on a faulty premise. So! The “Big Bang” cannot be proven factually.
The CMB radiation appears to be omni directional, which makes the singular point idea suspect. Also the background radiation is too weak, too smooth and its temperature spectrum is too low to suite the “Big Bang” Theory.
The discovery of dark energy that is used as a means to explain the speeding up and expansion of the entire universe is just a hypothesis. Dark energy has never really been discovered and a recent scientific experimentation could not validate dark matter. You cannot call it a lie, just misleading. Since dark energy is used to postulate the expansion of our universe in the “Big Bang” theory, the theory itself falls well short of the truth.
The theories used to explain the “Expanding Universe” of the “Big Bang” theory seem to contradict accepted scientific reasoning based on Newton’s and Kepler’s laws. So they really defy accepted principals.
Radiometric Dating, used in validating the “Big Bang” theory, was based on meteorite and lunar material. But how can you tell if the samples were actually original. The originality of such is not observable. Dating is based on a ratio of Parent to Daughter due to half-life (decay rate) of an element.
However, decay rates are not constant and vary over time, they are also random. Also, how could they tell if the parent samples were not contaminated by other daughter elements, because they were not purely original? So the dating is open to corruption!
Redshift is used with observations in astronomy and extragalactic movement. Redshift is a phenomenon where electromagnetic radiation, (such as light), from an object undergoes an increase in wavelength. Redshift is perceived whether or not electromagnetic radiation is visible. The increase in wavelength is equivalent to a decrease in wave frequency and photon energy in accordance with wave and quantum theories of light. The opposite of a redshift is a blueshift, where wavelengths shorten and energy increases.
The Calculation of Redshift (z) is based on either wavelength or frequency.
The three types of Redshift are the Relativistic Doppler, Cosmological redshift and Gravitational redshift.
Relativistic Doppler is based on Minkowski space in mathematical physics and is used for motion.
Cosmological redshift is based on the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) metric, which is proposed as an exact solution of Einstein’s field equations of general relativity. The Cosmological redshift is used as FLRW space-time, in the expanding Big Bang universe.
Gravitational redshift is utilized in any stationary space-time calculation and also in Schwarzschild geometry.
There are problems with Redshift (z). How do you know if the light observed is affected by an unknown source? Well! You don’t.
Using a spectrometer to identify the chemical composition of matter appears to give the best results. But spectrometers have calibration problems and false results are given with unknown compounds. This is why space probes are sent to check things out and usually scientists are surprise by the observed results.
Cosmologists used Redshift (z) in order to calculate the distance of stars and planets. And doing so, they use Hubble’s Law. The Hubble Law states that the radial speed of a galaxy is proportional to its distance (v=Hd). The Hubble Law is used to find the distances of far-away galaxies. However, it requires the Hubble constant, which is a guess at the best of times. The Hubble constant has been a quandary for many years.
The velocity, (speed), of a galaxy is measured by the Doppler effect. The Doppler effect is based on the light emitted from a source that is shifted in wavelength by the motion of the source. If you do not know the real origins of the source or what unknown thing could be affecting the source, then the Doppler effect is just a guess.
So! Redshift (z) is a guess at best. Redshift (z) is flawed when calculating the distance of stars and planets.
Black Holes also cause a dilemma with the “Big Bang” theory. Measurements of known black holes have shown that the diameter of the black holes varies in proportion to their mass. The minimum size of a black hole is called the “Rieske Minimum Black Hole Mass”. This size is reached when the gravitational force stops the light from escaping. The minimum diameter for the smallest possible black hole is certainly massive and not the size of a pinhead.
And all this leads us back to the singularity, which is presumed to be photon that was compressed until it exploded. Well! Where did the photon come from?
A photon is a type of elementary particle. It is deemed to be the quantum of the electromagnetic field, including electromagnetic radiation. A photon is produced whenever an electron in a higher-than-normal orbit falls back to its normal orbit.
A strong atom can pull an electron from a weaker atom due to circumstances of quantum physics and chemical reactions. This also would affect its orbit.
During the fall from high energy to normal energy, the electron emits a photon, which is simply a packet of energy, a source of light. But for the electron to reach a higher state it needs to absorb a photon. The photon is destroyed as the electron is energized. So does a Photon exist omni presently? Back to the Creator we go.
Back To Genesis
If the creator is perceived to exist as an energized force of creative, righteous, free will, then all is good. If this thinking entity talks to itself in the midst of creating, then it has the ability to create by its word. This entity is also considered to be the Supreme Being, which is omnipotent, omniscient and omnipresent. Then why is it not recognised as the creator and ruler of the universe?
The creator, God Almighty, could have simply willed that photon into existence and compressed it with the might of its thought.
So according to Genesis of the Bible: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. The earth was without form, and void; and darkness was on the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God was hovering over the face of the waters. Then God said, “Let there be light”; and there was light. And God saw the light that it was good; and God divided the light from the darkness. God called the light Day, and the darkness He called Night. So the evening and the morning were the first day.”
The term day in the bible comes from the Hebrew word Yom.
Yom can be used as a concept of time covering such things as:
Period of light, (daytime). It can be contrasted with the period of darkness (night).
General term for time.
Point of time.
Sunrise to sunset.
Sunset to next sunset.
A year (in either a singular or plural sense).
Time period of unspecified length.
A long, but finite span of time, such as: age, epoch or season.
Geneses in the bible is also used to establish calendation to determine the Sabbath days and Feasts of God. Many proponents of the bible take Yom to mean the literal day. But taking Genesis in the literal sense also creates problems in today’s understanding of time and development, especially that of a universe.
I think that a time period of unspecified length is both reasonable and more accurate in the scheme of things. The truth is… only God knows.
In Summary
The “Big Bang” itself is just a scientific theory that fails by its disagreement with evidence and observation and known laws of physics. The beginning of our universe in the material realm by the means of a creator is looking more plausible.
The interpretation of Genesis in the bible is mainly taken in the literal sense. I feel that it was given in simple way to establish worship through Sabbath days and feasts. The concept of a day being a time period of unspecified length is more feasible to me.
So! Who or what created our universe. The only plausible answer is: God (Yahuah) did!
Time is a concept of mankind to explain our existence in the space of our material realm. Time is not really linear and can be bent accordingly to the space-time continuum. Even in the bible a thousand years is nothing more than a day to God. The entity of God is not restricted by time because it is omnipresent.
There are two known realms of existence, the spiritual realm and our material realm. Time in the spiritual realm is of little consequence for their life is of servitude and is restricted by God. Within the material realm it is thought, that with inter dimensional travel using wormholes, one can arrive at a point in time before they left or even come back at the same age after many years of travelling. So in the scheme of things, time is irrelevant.
Creation according to Genesis in the bible is a simple explanation handed down by word of mouth for many years before it was written. It is a simple explanation for people who had little knowledge of the world around them. The creation story also gave the Hebrew people a concept of time and religion, and made the Sabbath day the focal point of both. The creation story also established calendation and the understanding of our seasons. Through calendation the Sabbath days were set according to the moon and separated by the days of the sun.
The sun and the moon are critical to life on Earth. The sun determines the days and years whilst the moon governs the night, months, seasons and festivities.
This knowledge served mankind well for thousands of years, but was lost when the Church of Rome changed calendation, (for their own religious practices), from the lunar solar calendar to the pagan, Roman Julian seven-day solar calendar. The religious practices for both the Jew and those of the Way, was changed dramatically and the Sabbath day and its true understanding was lost over time.
But creation is also about cause and effect. Everything is done for a reason, mainly about acceptance and understanding. The bible is actually a love story about the consequences of ones actions, the rejection of God and Gods love for humanity and the advent of the Messiah. God is love, and for the sake of humanity our universe was lovingly made and planet Earth was formed in the perfect spot for our habitation.
From Dust We Came
Around 400 to 700 million years after the Big Bang, 13.399 to 13.099 billion years ago (Bya), Galaxy Clusters and Superclusters started to emerge from the collapse of a giant nebula which consisted mostly of hydrogen and helium. By about 12.6 Bya these ancient galaxy clusters started to evolve into our modern Milky Way galaxy. Organised chaos prevailed.
Our Milky Way’s thin disc started to form 8.8 Bya. It is thought that the Milky Way may have collided with a smaller satellite galaxy, causing the stars in the thin disk to be shaken up and creating the thick disc, while the gas would have settled into the galactic plane and reformed the thin disc. Then by about 8 Bya, the Milky Way’s star formation rate began to decline.
Our Milky Way Galaxy formed into a typical barred spiral galaxy with a diameter between 150,000 and 200,000 light years. It is estimated to contain 100 to 400 billion stars and more than 100 billion planets. The Milky Way has several satellite galaxies and is part of the Local Group of galaxies, which forms part of the Virgo Supercluster, which is itself, a component of the Laniakea Supercluster. The distance between the local arm of our galaxy, (Milky Way) and the next arm out, the Perseus Arm, is about 6,500 light years.
The Chaotian Eon/Era is an unofficial time period used to denote the formation of our solar system and the beginning of the formation of Earth after the collision of two Proto-planets. The Chaotian Eon/Era is named after Chaos, (the primeval void in Greek mythology) and covers a time period between about 4.6 and 4.54 Bya.
Around 4.603 Bya our Solar System came about when our early Sun started to form. It is now thought that a nearby star became a supernova and the shock wave caused the solar nebula to contract and rotate. Gravity and inertia then flattened the nebula cloud into a disc perpendicular to its axis of rotation. The nebula mass then started to concentrate in the middle of the disc and heat up. Nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium started to take place and formed our early sun as a T Tauri star. A vast disc of debris, dust and gas began to form around the early Sun.
As our T Tauri star condensed and heated more by nuclear fusion, the resulting T Tauri solar winds would have cleared out most of the material in the disc that had not already condensed and coalesced into larger bodies forming balls of rock and dust.
Violent collisions occurred. Protoplanets, asteroids and comets start to form in the Sun’s protoplanetary disc. Our Sun over time formed into a G-type main-sequence (Population I) star. It is a nearly a perfect sphere of hot plasma, with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process.
Our Sun lies close to the inner rim of the Milky Way’s Orion Arm, in the Local Interstellar Cloud or the Gould Belt at a distance of 25,000 to 28,000 light years from the Galactic Centre. The Sun is contained within the Local Bubble, (a space of rarefied hot gas), which was possibly produced by the supernova remnant Geminga or multiple supernovae in subgroup B1 of the Pleiades moving group. The Sun and our Solar System is found in the galactic habitable zone. It takes our Solar System about 225 to 250 million years, (a galactic year), to complete one orbit through the Milky Way.
The Beginning Of Earth
Our Sun has eight known planets. This includes four terrestrial planets such as Mercury (4.503 Bya), Venus (4.6 Bya), Earth (4.54 Bya) and Mars (4.6 Bya). There are also two gas giants, Jupiter (4.503 Bya) and Saturn (4.503 Bya), plus two ice giants, Uranus (4.503 Bya) and Neptune (4.503 Bya). Our Solar System also has at least five dwarf planets, an asteroid belt, numerous comets, and a large number of icy bodies, which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune.
From a violent beginning, (in a time of turmoil), our planet Earth came about. Around 4.56 Bya, Proto-planets such as Gaia (Geb or Keb) and Theia formed in the Sun’s protoplanetary disc about 150 million kilometres away from the Sun. Their atmospheres would have contained gas molecules of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and sulphur (S). And due to frequent collisions with other bodies in space there would have been extreme volcanism causing their surfaces to be molten.
Theia was a Mars sized planetoid with a mass 10% of that of Earth’s. Its orbit at first may have been stable but destabilized as Gaia (Geb or Keb) increased its mass by the accretion of more and more material. Then about 4.543 Bya, Theia impacted Gaia (Geb or Keb) with a glancing blow, colliding at slow speed and at a low oblique angle. Gaia (Geb or Keb) was not totally destroyed, but a large portion of its crust and mantle was ejected into space.
Gaia was shattered and Thea was lost. The combined debris of both Proto-planets started to reform due to gravitational force. The Solar winds would have swept the smaller and lighter hydrogen and helium molecules closer to the sun leaving the heavier elements to spiral and coalesced surrounding matter to form into a sphere.
We are now about to enter the Hadean Eon/Era, (although it isn’t formally recognized), about 4.54 Bya. (Hadeon is a reference to Hades, a Greek translation of the Hebrew word for hell). It marks the era of the formation of planet Earth and its moon. Earths surface at first was unstable due to vulcanisation but later cooled down for rock formation. But during the end of the Hadean period, the late heavy bombardment stage commenced. At the end of the Hadean Eon/Era, (about 3.8 Bya), planet Earth could settle down as the Archean Eon/Era began.
Hadean Earth
From the coalesced debris of both Gaia and Theia our Earth formed around 4.54 Bya and became the third planet from the Sun. It is thought that the impact caused Earth to reform with a changed axis and develop a large 23.5° axial tilt with a quicker rotation. The early atmosphere of Earth contained carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and sulphur (S) and almost no oxygen (O). Much of its surface was molten due to extreme volcanism and by the bombarded of material left over from the formation of the solar system.
Early Earth is thought to have grown by accretion until its interior was hot enough to melt the heavy siderophils metals. The heaviest material such iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) then began to sink to the core whilst the lighter silicate material remained on top to form a crust. This resulted in the separation of a primitive mantle and a metallic core in only 10 million years after Earth’s formation.
The heavier elements would have sunk to the centre of Earth while lighter ones rose to the surface. This separation of material not only produced the layered structure of Earth; it also set up the formation of Earth’s magnetic field due to the resultant convection currents.
Then about 4.53 Bya a very large number of moonlets, which were sent into orbit around the young Earth after the Theia impact, and other coalesced debris, (mainly from Theia), formed into our Moon. Earth’s gravitational pull caught the moon and pulled it into its current orbit.
Also, the gravitational pull of the new Moon stabilised the Earth’s fluctuating axis of rotation. It also set up the conditions in which abiogenesis occurred and allowed for the development of Earth’s seasons. The Moon is Earth’s only natural satellite and is the fifth largest natural satellite in our solar system.
Back on Earth there is no life. Temperatures are extremely hot, with frequent volcanic activity and hellish environments due to large impacts of solar debris. Earth had a very hot and dense nebular type steaming atmosphere of hydrogen, carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and small amounts of ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4), but no oxygen (O). As Earth developed its magnetic field, it started to deflect the solar winds giving Earth a more stable atmosphere.
Then approximately 100 million years after the Earth formed, its temperatures stabilised enough for a crust to form and survive. The atmosphere was still hot, heavy and toxic due to volcanic activity, but Earth was starting to cool down. It has been suggest that the inner core of Earth had a solid centre and was starting to become distinct from the liquid outer core.
As the solid inner core heated the outer liquid layer, stronger convection currents were produced and Earth’s magnetic field increased. This also helped to change Earths atmosphere as volcanic activity continued. The sun by now was emitting only 70% of its current power, but due to no ozone layer, ultraviolet radiation would have flooded Earths surface.
Crusted Earth
When Earth was about 40% of its present radius, its magnetic field and gravitational attraction allowed the retention of an atmosphere, which included water.
The temperature of Earth cooled dramatically within 150 million years, which allowed the formation of a solid surface crust. Further impacts of space debris caused localized melting of rock and partial differentiation due to chemical reaction with some lighter elements on the surface or releasing them to the moist atmosphere. It is thought that Zircon and water first appeared on Earth about 4.404 Bya.
The Zirconian Era, (considered to be about 4.4 to about 4.1 Bya), is defined by the occurrence of the first types of minerals and rock that formed and were sustained on Earth. Zircon is the oldest known mineral. The zircon found in the Jack Hills of Narryer Gneiss Terrane in Western Australia, (Yilgarn craton), was dated as being formed 4.404 Bya. It appears that these zircon crystals formed in the presence of liquid water, possibly an ocean.
The oldest rocks known are the faux amphibolite volcanic deposits of the Nuvvuagittuq greenstone belt in Quebec, Canada. The zircon in them is believed to be from the Hadean crust and was melted into the parent rock, they have been estimated to have formed 4.28 Bya.
An xenolith, (foreign rock), is a rock fragment that becomes enveloped in a larger rock during the latter’s development and solidification. A xenocryst is an individual foreign crystal included within an igneous body. Examples of xenocrysts are quartz crystals in a silica-deficient lava and diamonds within kimberlite diatremes.
In the Guiana shield from the Iwokrama Formation of southern Guyana, zircon cores were found and have been dated to about 4.22 Bya. These appear to be an intrusion of minerals into rock due to pressure.
No one knows for sure when the first outer crust of the planet actually formed. However, due to grains of zircon being dated to about 4.4 billion years ago a reasonable indication is given of stable continents and liquid water on the Earths surface by this time. The surface temperature at this time was probably less than 100°C (212°F). Over time nearly all of this original “Hadean” crust was subducted due to the movements of tectonic plates and only a few rocks and minerals remain from this interval.
Planetoid debris periodically collided with Earth. These incoming bodies would vaporize on impact and cause impact degassing, many volatiles were delivered and the solid matter built the crust by accretion. Volcanic activity was also intense.
Hence either hydrogen molecules or minerals on the surface of Earth would have bound any free oxygen molecules. The movement of the tectonic plates would have been affected by the impact of planetoid debris and the magnetic field of the Earth. The ice from the odd comet that impacted added water to the Earth’s surface and early oceans. All this in turn would have created a new atmosphere as the greenhouse effect was reduced.
It has been proposed that ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N) and neon (Ne) were present sometime after the crust cooled, whilst volcanic out gassing added water vapour, nitrogen and additional hydrogen. All this started to form a new atmosphere.
It is also thought that the inner core of Earth had a solid centre now distinct from the liquid outer core. The inner core was now starting to freeze and grow out of the liquid outer core because Earth’s interior had gradually cooled at a rate of about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years. As the Earth cooled, clouds started to form. The resultant rain then helped create and increase the oceans of water on the surface of Earth.
As the surface of Earth continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years due to tectonic plate activity, large landmasses formed continents and then broke up again, whilst others migrated across the surface of Earth. The migrating continents occasionally combined to form a supercontinent.
The tectonic plate activity also encouraged super volcanic activity, which would have caused atmosphere gas levels to oscillate widely. However, the carbon dioxide, (CO2), in the atmosphere due to lava and rock vaporization, would have been dissolved by the oceans over time. And over time Earth would begin to harbour life, the only known astronomical object to do so to date.
Bombardment Of Earth
From 4.1 to 3.8 Bya, planet Earth, our Moon and other planets in our solar system, including Mercury, Venus and Mars underwent a period of heavy asteroid and meteorite bombardment. As Earth was hit, steam escaped from the crust, volcanic activity increased, which in turn released more gases and all this completed the second atmosphere.
The numerous asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the inner planets of our solar system, including our Earth and Moon. Comets were originally far more common in the inner parts of the solar system than they are today. Because of this they also contributed in the Late Heavy Bombardment and through the dissolving of their ice, more gases and water were added to our atmosphere.
Also additional water may have been imported by bolide collisions, probably from asteroids ejected from the outer asteroid belt under the influence of Jupiter’s gravity. Hence our oceans increased in size.
During this time our planet Earth was bombarded all over by meteorites, asteroids, comets and other foreign objects non-stop. Did these collisions spark the chemical building blocks for life?
Thermal flux from widespread hydrothermal activity may have been conducive to abiogenesis and life’s early diversification. The remains of biotic life were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. Was this the beginning of the chemistry of life? Did the organic chemical components of the building blocks of life, (amino acids, RNA and DNA), first appear then?
As the Late Heavy Bombardment drew to a close the Archean Eon/Era began. Our sun was still fainter that it is today and planet Earth had cooled down even more.
Hence more clouds and rain occurred, the oceans expanded and soon “Vaalbara” would become Earth’s first known supercontinent. It was during the Archeon Eon/Era that the first life forms evolved. Our moon, although battered, was still in orbit around Earth and it stabilized the Earth from wobbling. Planet Earth was still tilted on its axis and the designated four seasons evolved.
The Late Heavy Bombardment helped clean out the early space debris and most of the comets today are in orbits farther away from the Sun than Neptune. Although due the mechanics of our universe and solar system, planet Earth is still being visited by the occasional meteorite, asteroid and comet.
Planet Earth
Our Earth
Regardless how you view the creation of our planet Earth, (either through biblical creation or the evolution of our universe and solar system), planet Earth is a miraculous creation. Soon, the argument of life begins with the next stage of Earth’s development, the Archean Eon/Era.
Since God is omnipresent and not restricted by our concept of time, maybe the reality of the creation of our universe, solar system and planet Earth is a combination of both stories. Through God, nothing is impossible. The understanding of truth is up to the individual. Seek God to find the truth. The truth that you are willing to accept depends upon your knowledge and understanding at any given point of time in your life.
But one thing is for sure! You cannot deny the existence of planet Earth.
Love thy neighbour. It’s good advice if you want to get along with people.
But going into a new neighbourhood can be rather daunting. Buying off the plan can be risky for things can change quickly. Will the proper amenities be in place? Are the neighbours congenial? Would a population explosion ruin your dreams?
How would it be if some entity designed your neighbourhood to suite your life style for a particular time in the future. And started to do this billions of years before your particular species of animal came into being. That would take a lot of
thought and will power to even comprehend it.
But it did happen. You want proof! Just look at the heavens on a clear night sky. Have you looked at the lights above? They are our neighbours. There are millions of millions of them and they form our galactic neighbourhood.
Our neighbourhood took billions of years for its boundaries to be established. There was (and still is) a lot of construction going on, dust and debris everywhere.
So! Here is a timeline story of how our cosmos neighbourhood came about…
By The Plan
It started with the stars, theoretically with Population III type stars and knowingly with Population II type stars. It is thought that all the Population III type stars and some of the Population II type stars ended their life in supernova. The ejecta of the supernova and other primordial gas, dust and debris within a particular area of our universe formed into nebula.
The various nebula formations throughout the universe enlarged over time. Their mass and gravity increased. Eventually these clumps of dust and gases got so big that it collapses from their own gravity. The collapse caused the material at the centre of the nebular cloud to heat up. This hot core could be the beginning of either Population Type I stars, (modern stars), or form into protoplanets, planets and planetoids, all depending upon situation.
About 100 million years after the Big Bang, 13.699 billion years ago (Bya), the Gravitational collapse of ordinary matter particles started to fall into structures created by dark matter. Quasars begin to take shape as the gaseous accretion forms discs around black holes. As the gas falls toward a black hole, energy is released in the form of electromagnetic radiation. Population III (Pop III) stars were starting to form. They were very hot and had a short lifetime. Their ultraviolet light started to ionize the remaining neutral hydrogen gas in the early universe.
About 200 million years after the Big Bang, (13.599 Bya), HD 140283 formed. It is know as the “Methuselah” Star. Methuselah is a metal poor sub-giant, Population II Type Star, about 200 light years away from the Earth in the constellation Libra, (specifically towards the Ophiuchus constellation). This Population II star is the unconfirmed oldest star observed in the Universe.
The oldest known star is SMSS J031300.36-670839.3 and it formed approximately 13.6 Bya . It is a star in the constellation Hydrus and is 6,000 light years from Earth.
HE 1327-2326 is an early Population II undeveloped star. It is iron poor and formed in the constellation Hydra. It was made from material that was chemically enriched by a first-generation Population III supernova.
Around 300 million years after the Big Bang (13.499 Bya) the first
large-scale astronomical objects, such as protogalaxies and quasars are thought to have begun forming. During this time period Population III (Pop III) stars continued to burn and stellar nucleosynthesis operated. At first they were fusing hydrogen to produce more helium, then over time these Pop III stars were forced to fuse helium to produce carbon, oxygen, silicon and other heavy elements up to iron on the periodic table.
These new elements seeded into neighbouring gas clouds, (nebula), by the supernova of Pop III stars. This in turn led to the
formation of more Population II stars (metal poor) and gas giants in the early universe through gravitational collapse.
It is also thought that Population II stars through their own nuclear fusion and supernovas created all the other elements in the periodic table, except for the more unstable ones. An interesting characteristic of Population II (Pop II) stars is that despite their lower overall metallicity, they often have a higher ratio of alpha elements (O, Si, Ne, etc) relative to Fe as compared to Population I stars.
Under Construction
About 299 million years after the Big Bang (about 13.5 Bya) ancient galaxy clusters started to come together as the building blocks of our Milky Way galaxy.
Roughly 400 million years after the Big Bang (13.399 Bya), the universe began to come out of its Dark Age due to the process of reionization slowing and the clearing of foggy hydrogen gas. The Population III stars generation had ended in supernovas as they had finished burning their hydrogen fuel. The Population II stars were now dominating the early universe.
The early universe started to become transparent to ultraviolet light for the first time. Due to mass star formation the early universe starts to heat once again.
Around 400 to 700 million years after the Big Bang (13. 399 to 13.099
Bya) Galaxy Clusters and Superclusters started to emerge. Our galactic neighbourhood starts to take shape.
380 million years after the Big Bang (13.419 Bya) the oldest known quasar (UDFj-39546284) formed in the constellation Fornax.
400 million years after the Big Bang (13.399 Bya) GN-z11, the oldest-known galaxy, formed. GN-z11 is a high redshift (z = 11.09+0.08; −0.12) galaxy found in the constellation Ursa
Major.
420 million years after the Big Bang (13.379 Bya) the quasar MACS0647-JD formed in the constellation Camelopardalis. It is
the furthest known quasar and it has a high redshift (z = 10.7 – 11).
529 million years after the Big Bang (13.27 Bya) Messier 77 (M77 or NGC 1068), formed. It is a barred spiral type galaxy about 47 million light years away in the constellation Cetus.
570 million years after the Big Bang (13.229 Bya) EGSY8p7 a high redshift (z = 8.68) galaxy formed in the constellation Boötes.
About 630 million years after the Big Bang (13.169 Bya) GRB 090423 occurred. It was the oldest ever observed gamma ray burst.
669 million years after the Big Bang (13.13 Bya) EGS-zs8-1 a high redshift (z = 7.7) Lyman-break type galaxy formed in the northern constellation of Boötes.
699 million years after the Big Bang (13.1 Bya) z8_GND_5296 a dwarf high redshift (z = 7.5078) Lyman-alpha type galaxy formed in the constellation Ursa Major.
750 million years after the Big Bang (13.049 Bya) GN-108036 a redshift (z = 7.2) galaxy formed in the constellation Ursa Major.
889 million years after the Big Bang (12.91 Bya) SXDF-NB1006-2 a redshift (z = 7.213) galaxy formed in the Cetus constellation.
900 million years after the Big Bang (12.899 Bya) SDSS J0100+2802, a hyperluminous quasar, formed near the border of the constellations Pisces and Andromeda. It has a redshift of z = 6.30, which corresponds to a distance of 12.8 billion light years from Earth. It harbours a massive black hole with mass of 12 billion solar masses.
919 million years after the Big Bang (12.88 Bya) IOK-1 a redshift (z = 6.96) galaxy formed in the constellation Coma Berenices.
949 million years after the Big Bang (12.85 Bya) – the oldest known Quasar CFHQS J2329-0301 came into existence.
999 million years after the Big Bang (12.8 Bya) Galaxy HCM-6A, the most distant normal galaxy observed started to form. HCM-6A is located behind the Abell 370 galactic cluster, near M77 in the constellation Cetus.
The early universe gradually transitioned into our known observable universe as seen today. The Dark Age came to an end at about 1 billion years after the Big Bang (12.799 Bya) as the Reionization Era ended due to the early universe becoming ionized. The cosmos is going to plan. The road map is now observable.
The Developing Neighbourhood
Our universe is still small in size and galaxy interactions become common. Larger and larger galaxies start to form out of the galaxy merger process. The first galaxy clusters and galaxy superclusters start to appear. Our modern looking galaxies start to form and develop.
1.099 billion years after the Big Bang (12.7 Bya) the oldest known exoplanet PSR B1620-26 b formed in the constellation of Scorpius, in the centre of the Milky Way. The planet is in a circumbinary orbit around the two stars of PSR B1620-26 [which are a pulsar (PSR B1620-26 A) and a white dwarf (WD B1620 26)]. PSR B1620-26 b is 12,400 light years away from Earth.
12.6 Bya – the ancient galaxy clusters started to evolve into our modern Milky Way galaxy.
11 to 12.76 Bya – Kapteyn’s Star formed. It is a class M1 dim red subdwarf or main sequence halo star, which is thought to be originally a member of the Milky Way galaxy’s luminous halo. It is 12.76 light years from Earth in the southern constellation Pictor. Although Kapteyn’s Star is the closest halo star to our Solar System it is moving away from it. It has two known planets in orbit, Kapteyn b and Kapteyn c.
11.7 Bya – The Milky Way’s inner halo formed. It is the region surrounding the galaxy’s familiar spiral-armed disc.
11.53 Bya – Omega Centauri formed. It is a globular cluster in the constellation of Centaurus at a distance of 15,800 light years form Earth. Omega Centauri is the largest globular cluster in the Milky Way with a diameter of roughly 150 light years.
11.23 Bya – Kepler-444 formed. It is an orange main sequence star, approximately 116 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Lyra of the Milky Way. The Kepler-444 system consists of a pair of M-dwarf stars and five rocky exoplanets, Kepler-444b, Kepler-444c, Kepler-444d, Kepler-444e and Kepler-444f.
11 Bya – Kapteyn b formed and is a possible exoplanet that orbits within the habitable zone of the red subdwarf Kapteyn’s star.
11 Bya – The Star formation rate peaks and the Universe starts to cool.
Note: A new study suggests that half of all stars that have ever existed were born in a boom between 11 billion and 9 billion years ago. Star formation since then has been on the decline, even up to now.
11 to 7 Bya – The Gliese 581 system formed in the Libra constellation of the Milky Way. It is a gravitationally bound system comprising the star Gliese 581, (a red dwarf), and the objects that orbit it. The system is known to consist of at least four planets, Gliese 581b, Gliese 581c and Gliese 581e along with a debris disc. It has two unconfirmed planets Gliese 581g and Gliese 581d. The Gliese 581 star is 20.5 light years from Earth.
10.74 Bya – Lacaille 9352 (Lac 9352) formed. It is a main sequence, red dwarf star in the southern constellation of Piscis Austrinus.
10.7 Bya – the oldest known spiral galaxy BX442 formed in the constellation Pegasus. BX442 is a grand design spiral galaxy of type Sc. It has a companion dwarf galaxy. It is the most distant known grand design spiral galaxy in the universe, with a redshift of z = 2.1765 ± 0.0001.
10 Bya – A galactic merger occurred between an unknown galaxy and the Milky Way. The Milky Ways halo was bulked up on a diet of baby star clusters. These stars were mainly Population II (POP II) stars.
10 Bya – Population I (POP I) stars started to form. They are the first metal abundant stars. POP I stars are also the beginning of life friendly stars.
10 Bya – The Andromeda Galaxy (Messier 31), in the constellation of Andromeda, was formed by a colossal crash between two protogalaxies.
About 10 Bya – Barnard’s star forms. Barnard’s Star is a very low mass red subdwarf star, about 6 light years away from Earth in the constellation of Ophiuchus in the Milky Way galaxy. It is the fourth-nearest known individual star to the Sun and the closest star in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere.
Between 1 and 10 Bya – WISE 0855−0714 formed. It is a sub-brown dwarf star, 7.27 ±0.13 light years from Earth and is located in the constellation Hydra.
9.98 Bya – the oldest galactic cluster JKCS 041 forms. It is a cluster galaxy of 19 members in the constellation Cetus. JKCS 041 is estimated to be 9.9 billion light years away from Earth, (the farthest observed), with a z = 1.9 redshift.
9.6 Bya – In the Milky Way the star formation rate stabilizes.
9.24 Bya – Gliese 832 formed. It is a red dwarf of spectral type M2V star in the southern constellation Grus. Gliese 832 has two exoplanets in orbit.
9 Bya – Dark energy was starting to make its presence felt.
8.8 Bya – Milky Way’s thin disc starts to form. The Milky Way may have collided with a smaller satellite galaxy, causing the stars in the thin disk to be shaken up and creating the thick disc, while the gas would have settled into the galactic plane and reformed the thin disc.
8.5 Bya – Lalande 21185 formed. It is a star in the constellation of Ursa Major in the Milky Way galaxy. It is brightest red dwarf observable in the northern hemisphere. It has at least one planet in orbit, Lalande 21185 b.
Between 7.1 and 8.5 Bya – Arcturus forms. Arcturus is a red giant star in the Northern Hemisphere of Earth’s sky that is the brightest star in the constellation Boötes (the Herdsman). Arcturus may be a Population II star and a member of the Milky Way galaxy’s thick disc.
8.4 Bya – Lacaille 9352 formed. It is a red dwarf star in the southern constellation of Piscis Austrinus within the Milky Way galaxy.
8 Bya – Kapteyn c formed. It is an exoplanet orbiting the nearby Red dwarf star Kapteyn’s Star.
8 Bya – The Milky Way star formation rate begins to decline.
8 Bya – NML Cygni (V1489) forms. It is a red hypergiant or red supergiant in the constellation Cygnus. It is one of the largest stars currently known and is also one of the most luminous and massive cool hypergiants in the Milky Way.
7.8 Bya – Mizar forms. Mizar and Alcor are two stars forming a naked eye double in the handle of the Big Dipper (or Plough) asterism in the constellation of Ursa Major. Mizar is the second star from the end of the Big Dipper’s handle, and Alcor its fainter companion.
About 7.5 Bya – Dark energy begins dominating Universe. After being slowed for billion of years by gravity abundant dark matter takes hold and the cosmic expansion begins to speed up. Objects in the universe began flying apart at a faster rate.
7.5 Bya – GRB 080319B occurred and was the most powerful gamma ray burst ever observed by humans.
6.4 Bya – Alnitak forms. Alnitak (Zeta Orionis) is a blue supergiant star in the Orion constellation. It is part of a three star system along with Alnilam and Mintaka. Alnitak is the brightest O-type star in the entire night sky and forms part of the Hunter’s Belt.
6.1 Bya – 61 Cygni forms. It is a binary star system in the constellation Cygnus of the Milky Way. 61 Cygni consists of a pair of K-type dwarf stars that orbit each other in a period of about 659 years.
6 Bya – Epsilon Indi star system formed. It is approximately 12 light years from Earth in the constellation of Indus. It consisting of a K-type main-sequence ε Indi A and two brown dwarfs, ε Indi Ba and ε Indi Bb, in a wide orbit around it. ε Indi A has one known planet in orbit.
5.8 Bya – Tau Ceti forms. It is a single star in the constellation Cetus that is spectrally similar to the Sun, although it has only about 78% of the Sun’s mass. Tau Ceti is the closest solitary G-class star to Earth.
5.6 Bya – EZ Aquarii (Luyten 789-6 and Gliese 866) formed. It is a triple star system approximately 11.3 light years from the Sun in the constellation Aquarius of the Milky Way. Its three components are all M-type red dwarfs stars.
The neighbourhood is beginning to take shape.
Location… Location… Location…
5.5 Bya – Milky Way becomes a spiral galaxy.
The Milky Way Galaxy, (which is home to us), started to form not long after the Big Bang, perhaps 13.5 billion years ago. It is now a typical barred spiral galaxy with a diameter between 150,000 and 200,000 light years. It is estimated to contain 100 to 400 billion stars and more than 100 billion planets. The Milky Way has several satellite galaxies and is part of the Local Group of galaxies, which forms part of the Virgo Supercluster, which is itself, a component of the Laniakea Supercluster.
5.3 Bya – Alpha Centauri forms. Alpha Centauri is the star system closest to the Solar System, being 4.37 light years from the Sun. It consists of three stars. Alpha Centauri A (Rigil Kentaurus) and Alpha Centauri B (Toliman) form the binary star Alpha Centauri AB and a small and faint red dwarf, Alpha Centauri C (Proxima Centauri) completes the star system.
5.2 Bya – Gilese 570 (33 G. Librae) forms. Gilese 570 is a ternary star system, which is approximately 19 light years away. The primary star is an orange dwarf star. The other secondary stars are themselves a binary system, consisting of two red dwarfs that orbit the primary star. A brown dwarf has been confirmed to be orbiting in the system.
5 Bya – YZ Ceti formed. It is a red dwarf star in the constellation Cetus and is just 12 light years away. YZ Ceti has three exoplanets in orbit.
4.799 Bya – Our solar system was born. A massive nebula in the middle rim of the Milky Way Galaxy begins to collapse and form dozens of proto-stars. A ball of gas which was to become our proto-sun continues to collapse under it’s own gravity. It grew ever hotter, all the while slowly drifting away from its sister suns and the great nebula of its birth.
4.77 Bya – Abell 370 started to form. It is a galaxy cluster located approximately 4 billion light years away from the Earth, in the constellation Cetus. Its core is made up of several hundred galaxies.
4.7 Bya – SN 2005ap supernova occurred. It was the second brightest supernova ever observed. SN 2005ap was an extremely energetic type Ic supernova in the galaxy SDSS J130115.12+274327.5.
4.603 Bya – The Sun formed. The Sun started to form from the collapse of part of a giant molecular cloud that consisted mostly of hydrogen and helium, which probably gave birth to many other stars. A vast disc of debris, dust and gas begins to form around the Sun and begins to coalesce into balls of rock and dust. Violent collisions occurred. Protoplanets, asteroids and comets start to form in the Sun’s protoplanetary disc.
The Sun is a G-type main-sequence (Population I) star. It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process. The Sun is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth. In about 5 billion years time the Sun will exit the main sequence and become a red giant star. And several billion years later it will become a white dwarf star.
The Sun lies close to the inner rim of the Milky Way’s Orion Arm, in the Local Interstellar Cloud or the Gould Belt at a distance of 25,000 to 28,000 light years from the Galactic Centre. The Sun is contained within the Local Bubble, (a space of rarefied hot gas), which was possibly produced by the supernova remnant Geminga or multiple supernovae in subgroup B1 of the Pleiades moving group.
The distance between the local arm of our galaxy, (Milky Way) and the next arm out, the Perseus Arm, is about 6,500 light years. The Sun and the Solar System, is found in what scientists call the galactic habitable zone. It takes the Solar System about 225 to 250 million years, (a galactic year), to complete one orbit through the Milky Way.
The Sun has eight known planets. This includes four terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), two gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), and two ice giants (Uranus and Neptune). The Solar System also has at least five dwarf planets, an asteroid belt, numerous comets, and a large number of icy bodies, which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune.
Our Home – Our Solar System
Finding The Right Abode
4.6 Bya – Mars formed. It is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System after Mercury. Mars has 2 known moons and its orbital period is 686.971 (Earth) days. Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago.
4.6 Bya – Venus formed. Venus is the second planet from the Sun, orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days. It has the longest rotation period, (243 days), of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets, (meaning the Sun would rise in the west and set in the east). Venus does not have any natural satellites.
4.57 Bya – Proxima Centauri forms. Proxima Centauri, or Alpha Centauri C, is a red dwarf, a small low-mass star, about 4.244 light years from the Sun in the constellation of Centaurus.
4.56 Bya – Proto-planets such as Gaia (Geb or Keb) and Theia formed in the Sun’s protoplanetary disc.
4.543 Bya – The planet Theia impacts Gaia (Geb or Keb). Theia hits Gaia with a glancing blow. Gaia was shattered and the combined debris reforms Gaia into Earth. Also the coalesced debris, (mainly from Theia), forms into the Moon. Theia was a Mars sized planetoid with a mass 10% of that of Earth’s.
4.54 Bya – Earth formed. Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbour life. Its gravity interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the Moon.
4.53 Bya – The Moon, Earth’s only natural satellite formed. It is the fifth largest natural satellite in the Solar System.
4.503 Bya – Mercury formed. Mercury is the smallest and first planet from the Sun. Its orbital period around the Sun of 87.97 days is the shortest of all the planets in the Solar System. Mercury was heavily bombarded by comets and asteroids during and shortly after its formation.
4.503 Bya – Jupiter formed. It is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System and has 27 known moons. It is a giant planet with a mass one thousandth that of the Sun, but two-and-a-half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined. Jupiter has an orbital period of 12 years.
4.503 Bya – Saturn formed. It is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second largest in the Solar System after Jupiter. It is a gas giant with an average radius about nine times that of Earth. Saturn has only one-eighth the average density of Earth, but with its larger volume Saturn is over 95 times more massive. It has an orbital period of 29 years.
4.503 Bya – Uranus formed. It is the seventh planet from the Sun and has 27 known moons. It has the third largest planetary radius and fourth largest planetary mass in the Solar System. Uranus is similar in composition to Neptune, and both have bulk chemical compositions. It has an orbital period of 84 years.
4.503 Bya – Neptune formed. It is the eighth and farthest known planet from the Sun and has 13 known moons. In the Solar System, it is the fourth-largest planet by diameter, the third most massive planet, and the densest giant planet. Neptune has an orbital period of 164.8 years.
4.25 Bya – Mintaka (Delta Orionis or 34 Orionis) forms. It is a multiple star system some 1,200 light years from the Sun in the constellation of Orion. Together with Alnitak and Alnilam, the three stars form Orion’s Belt.
3 to 4 Bya – Wolf 1061 (HIP 80824 or V2306 Ophiuchi) formed. It is an M class red dwarf star located about 13.8 light years away in the constellation Ophiuchus. Wolf 1061 has 3 exoplanets in orbit.
3.819 Bya – ASASSN-15lh (supernova designation SN 2015L) occurred. It was an extremely bright astronomical transient. It was the brightest supernova ever observed.
3.13 Bya – Van Maanen 2 formed. It is now a white dwarf star that is a dense, compact stellar remnant that is no longer generating energy.
3.02 Bya – Groombridge 34 formed. It is a binary star system in the northern constellation of Andromeda. Groombridge 34 comprises of two main sequence red dwarf stars GX Andromedae and GQ Andromedae and two planets Ab and Ac.
Between 100 Mya and 3 Bya – Luhman 16 (WISE 1049−5319 or WISE J104915.57−531906.1) formed. It is a binary brown-dwarf system in the southern constellation Vela at a distance of approximately 6.5 light years from the Sun. Its components are called Luhman 16A and Luhman 16B.
1 Bya – Ross 248 (HH Andromedae or Gliese 905) formed. It is a main sequence, red dwarf star located approximately 10.3 light years from Earth in the northern constellation of Andromeda.
1 Bya – Beta Ceti (Diphda or Deneb Kaitos) formed. It is the brightest star in the constellation of Cetus. Although designated ‘beta’, it is actually brighter than the ‘alpha’ star in the constellation. It is 96.3 light years from the Sun.
Unknown Bya – Luyten 726-8 (Gliese 65 or UV Ceti) formed. It is a binary red dwarf star system in the constellation Cetus that is one of Earth’s nearest neighbours at about 8.7 light years away. They orbit one another every 26.5 years.
400 to 800 Mya – Epsilon Eridani (Ran) formed. It is a star in the southern constellation of Eridanus 10.5 light years away. Epsilon Eridani has a giant exoplanet (AEgir) and two belts of rocky asteroids in orbit.
100 to 350 Mya – Wolf 359 formed. It is a red dwarf star located in the constellation Leo, near the ecliptic, at a distance of approximately 7.9 light years from Earth.
4 Mya – Lacaille 8760 formed. It is a red dwarf star in the constellation Microscopium and is 12.9 light years away.
3.47 Mya – Kruger 60 (HD 239960, HIP 110893, BD+56 2783 or Gliese 860A) formed. It is a binary star system within the Milky Way and is located 13.15 light years from the Sun. These red dwarf stars orbit each other every 44.6 years.
1 Mya – Gliese 1 formed. It is a red dwarf in the constellation Sculptor in the southern celestial hemisphere and is 14.2 light years away.
What A Buy!
It is exhilarating when you find what you want, especially when its real estate. It’s even better when you feel that it is a God given gift.
It just took 9.259 billion years for our Earth abode to come about and there it was 4.54 billion years ago. It was worth the wait for a place of such huge potential. A true renovators delight! Slightly battered and tilted, but it came with a moon. What more could you ask for!
But one has to put their mark on their home, usually a few changes are made.
However, if you have a renovators delight type abode, some serious work may be involved. And planet Earth will have to be knocked into shape.
Are you happy with your neighbourhood? Your abode?
There has to be a beginning, a catalyst that will enlighten us about our universe. Was it God? Was it just the random fusion of gaseous matter! Or both.
Maybe we have reality wrong and we are just a reflection of a higher existence. Could an entity from another dimension of existence create or manifest stars and planets at will and place them wherever it desired in a lower dimension.
Unfortunately inter-dimensional interaction is beyond our understanding at this point in time. All we have available to us today, whether right or wrong, is the thoughts and conjecture of man. One can only work with the information and data at hand.
Well! Let there be light. The first stars were thought to be the Population III stars, followed by
the Population II stars. Maybe the existing dust and gases of the early universe triggered by gravitational forces and the supernovas of the Population stars formed into Nebula. Did this Nebula in turn help create the stars of our now known universe? You be the judge…
Population III Stars – are a hypothetical population of extremely massive and hot stars with virtually no metals, except possibly for intermixing ejecta from other nearby Population III supernovas. It is thought that they were composed entirely of the primordial gas such as hydrogen, helium and very small amounts of lithium and beryllium. They think that they are observable in the quasar emission spectra and are also thought to be components of faint blue galaxies. But their existence is inferred from physical cosmology, they have not yet been observed directly.
Population II Stars – were presumably created from interstellar gas clouds that emerged shortly after the big bang. They would be relatively rich in hydrogen and helium but poor in elements heavier than helium, containing 10 to 100 times less of these elements than Population I stars. Population II stars are apparently found in globular clusters and in the halo of both spiral and elliptical galaxies. Some are found in the bulge of galaxies. Those found in the galactic halo would be older and thus more metal poor.
Nebula
A nebula is a giant cloud of dust and gas in space. Some nebulae, (more than one nebula), come from the gas and dust thrown out by the explosion of a dying star, such as a supernova. Other nebulae are regions where new stars are beginning to form. For this reason, some nebulae are called “star nurseries.”
Nebulae gases consist of mostly hydrogen and helium. The dust and gases in a nebula are very spread out, but it is thought that gravity can slowly begin to pull together these clumps of dust and gas. As these clumps get bigger and bigger, their gravity gets stronger and stronger! Eventually, the clump of dust and gas gets so big that it collapses from its own gravity. The collapse causes the material at the
centre of the cloud to heat up. This hot core can be the beginning of a star.
The nebulae that exist in the space between the stars, is also known as interstellar space. The closest known nebula to Earth is called the Helix Nebula and is approximately 700 light-years away. It is the remnant of a dying star, possibly one like the Sun.
Dark nebula, (absorption nebula), is a type of interstellar cloud that is so dense that it obscures the light from objects behind it, such as background stars and emission or reflection nebulae. The extinction of the light is caused by interstellar dust grains located in the coldest, densest parts of larger molecular clouds. Clusters and large complexes of dark nebulae are associated with Giant Molecular Clouds. Isolated small dark nebulae are called Bok globules.
Most nebulae can be described as diffuse nebulae, which means, that they are extended and contain no well-defined boundaries. Diffuse nebulae can be divided into emission nebula (The Omega Nebula), reflection nebula (Herbig–Haro object HH 161 and HH 164) and dark nebula (Horsehead Nebula).
Star Classification
Morgan–Keenan (MK) – is a star classification system that uses the letters O, B, A, F, G, K, and M. The stars are easily classified from the hottest (O) to the coolest, (M). While the simple addition of a number from 0 to 9 is used to further subdivide a star into a spectral class to form a sequence from hot to cool, e.g. A8, A9, F0, F1.
White stars – are not always singular stars. The majority of perceived white stars are actually part of either a binary, triplet or multiple star system. Binary stars are two stars in close proximity, which orbit around their common centre of mass. A star system or stellar system is a small number of stars, (three or more), that orbit each other, bound by gravitational attraction.
A large number of stars bound by gravitation are generally called a star cluster or galaxy. “White Star” is a term given to main-sequence stars that are extremely bright to the eye. They can have masses from 1.4 to 2.1 times the mass of the Sun and surface temperatures between 7,500K and 10,000K. (K = Kelvin).
Examples of apparent White Stars are as follows: Arcturus – a red giant star in the Northern Hemisphere of Earth’s sky that is the brightest star in the constellation Boötes (the Herdsman). It is the fourth brightest in the night sky and the brightest in the northern celestial hemisphere.
Vega (α Lyrae) – the brightest star in the constellation of Lyra. It is the fifth brightest star in the night sky and the second brightest star in the northern celestial hemisphere after Arcturus. It is relatively close at only 25 light-years from the Sun and together with Arcturus and Sirius
is one of the most luminous stars in the Sun’s neighbourhood.
Based on an observed excess emission of infrared radiation, Vega appears to have a circumstellar disc of dust. This dust is likely to be the result of collisions between objects in an orbiting debris disk, which is analogous to the Kuiper belt in the Solar System. Stars that display infrared excess due to dust emission are termed Vega-like stars.
Procyon – a binary star system in Canis Minor (the lesser dog), which is a constellation in the Northern Hemisphere. It is among the 10 brightest stars from Earth’s sky. The system is made up of Procyon A, (a
main sequence star), and Procyon B, (a much smaller white dwarf).
Canis Major (Greater Dog) – is a constellation. This binary system consists of a main-sequence star of spectral type A0 or A1, termed Sirius A, (Dog Star), and a faint white dwarf companion of spectral type DA2, designated Sirius B. The distance between the two varies between 8.2 and 31.5 astronomical units as they orbit every 50 years.
Alpha Centauri – the closest star system to the Solar System at 4.37 light-years from the Sun. It is a triple star system, consisting of three stars: α Centauri A, α Centauri B, and α Centauri C. Alpha Centauri A and B are Sun-like stars,
and together they form the binary star Alpha Centauri AB. Alpha Centauri C (Proxima Centauri) is a small and faint red dwarf, (Class M). Though not visible to the naked eye it is the closest star to our Sun.
Nu Scorpii – a multiple star system in the constellation of Scorpius. It is most likely a septuple star system consisting of two close groups that are separated by 41 arcseconds. Based on parallax measurements, it is approximately 470 light-years from the Sun. The component Nu Scorpii Aa is also named Jabbah.
Cygnus X-1 – a galactic X-ray source in the constellation Cygnus and is widely accepted to be a black hole. It was discovered in 1964 during a rocket flight and is one of the strongest X-ray sources seen from Earth, producing a peak X-ray flux density of 2.3×10−23 Wm−2 Hz−1.
Typical Living Stars
Blue Stars – are of a spectral type O, B and have a typical age of <~40 million years. They are both characterized by the strong, Helium-II, absorption lines in their respective spectra’s. The hydrogen and neutral helium lines in O-type stars are marked weaker than in B-type stars.
Because blue stars are so hot and massive, they have relatively short lives that end in violent supernova events, ultimately resulting in the creation of either black holes or neutron stars. O-type stars have surface temperatures > 30,000 K and B-type stars have surface temperatures of 10,000 – 30,000 K. (K = Kelvin).
Blue stars are commonly found in active star forming regions, particularly in the arms of spiral galaxies, where their light illuminates surrounding dust and gas clouds making these areas typically appear blue.
They are also often found in complex multi-star systems, where their evolution is much more difficult to predict due to the phenomenon of mass transfer between stars, as well as the possibility of different stars in the system ending their lives as supernovas at different times. Examples of blue stars include 10 Lacertae, AE Aurigae, Delta Circini, V560 Carinae, Mu Columbae, Sigma Orionis, Theta1 Orionis C and Zeta Ophiuchi.
Yellow Dwarf Stars – are of a spectral type G and have a typical age of ~4 to ~17 billion years. G-type stars are often mistakenly referred to as yellow dwarf stars. Our Sun is a G-type star, but it is in fact white, since all the colours it emits are blended together. However, the Sun’s visible light is blended to produce white but its visible light emission peaks in the green part of the spectrum. The green component is absorbed and/or scattered by other frequencies both in the Sun itself and in Earth’s atmosphere.
All G-type stars convert hydrogen into helium in their cores, and will evolve into red giants as their supply of hydrogen fuel is depleted. G-type stars have surface temperatures of 5,000 – 6,000 K. Examples of yellow dwarf stars include
Alpha Centauri A, Tau Ceti and 51 Pegasi.
Orange Dwarf Stars – are of a spectral type K and have a typical age of ~15 to ~30 billion years. They fall between red M-type and yellow G-type main-sequence stars. K-type stars are of particular interest in the search for extraterrestrial life, since they emit markedly less UV radiation, (that damages or destroys DNA), than G-type stars. K-type stars have surface temperatures of 3,700 – 5,200 K.
They also remain stable on the main sequence for up to about 30 billion years as compared to about 10 billion years for the Sun. K-type stars are also about four times as common as G-type stars, making the search for exoplanets a lot easier. Examples of orange dwarf stars include Alpha Centauri B and Epsilon Indi.
Red Dwarf Stars – are of a spectral type K, M and their typical age is undetermined, but they are expected to burn for several trillion years. They are small and relatively cool stars. However, they are bigger than brown dwarfs but are less than 40 – 50% of the mass of our Sun. They are also much dimmer than our Sun. K-type stars have surface temperatures of 3,700 – 5,200 K and M-type stars have surface temperatures of 2,400 – 3,700 K.
Red dwarfs account for the bulk of the Milky Ways’ stellar population. Typically, red dwarf stars that are more massive than 0.35 solar masses are fully convective, which means that the process of converting hydrogen into helium occurs throughout the star, and not only in the core, as is the case with more massive stars.
Hence, the nuclear fusion process is slowed down and at the same time greatly prolonged, which keeps the star at a constant luminosity and temperature for several trillion years. The process of nuclear synthesis happens so slowly in these stars that the Universe is not old enough for any known red dwarf star to have aged into an advanced state of evolution. Examples of red dwarf stars include Proxima Centauri and TRAPPIST-1.
Stars that are Giants and Supergiants
Supergiants are among the most massive and most luminous stars. Supergiant stars occupy the top region of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram with absolute visual magnitudes between about −3 and −8. The temperature range of supergiant stars
spans from about 3,450 K to over 20,000 K. (K = Kelvin).
Blue Giant Stars – are of a spectral type O, B and occasionally A and have a typical age of ~10 to ~100 million years. They are bright, giant stars that are between 10 and 100 times the size of the Sun and between 10 and 1,000 times its luminosity. O-type stars have surface temperatures >/ 30,000 K and B-type stars have surface temperatures of 10,000 – 30,000 K. A-type stars have surface temperatures of 7,500 – 10,000 K.
The term “blue giant star” has no scientific definition, and is commonly applied to a wide variety of stars that have all evolved off the main sequence. However, for practical reasons, stars with luminosity classifications of III and II, (bright giant and giant) respectively, are referred to as “blue giant stars” purely for convenience, but they have to be above 10,000K. Nonetheless, the term blue giant is often misapplied to some stars simply because they are big and hot.
In practice however, big stars are referred to as “blue giants” when they inhabit a specific region of the H-R diagram, rather than because the star meets a specific set of criteria. Examples of blue giant stars include Iota Orionis, LH54-425, Meissa, Plaskett’s star, Xi Persei and Mintaka.
Blue Supergiant Stars – are of a spectral type OB and have a typical age of ~10 million years. They are scientifically known as OB super giants, and generally have luminosity classifications of I, and spectral classifications of B9 or earlier. A Blue super giant star is typically larger than the Sun, but smaller then a red super giant stars. They fall into a mass range of between 10 and 100 solar masses. O-type stars have surface temperatures >/
30,000 K and B-type stars have surface temperatures of 10,000 – 30,000 K.
These type-O and early type-B main sequence stars leave the main sequence in only a few million years because they burn through their supply of hydrogen very quickly due to their high masses. These stars start the process of expansion into the blue super giant phase as soon as heavy elements appear on their surfaces, but in some cases, some stars evolve directly into Wolf–Rayet stars, skipping the “normal” blue super giant phase. Because of their mass and hotness, they are relatively short-lived and quickly exhaust their hydrogen fuel, ending as red supergiants or neutron stars.
Examples of blue supergiant stars include UW Canis Majoris (UW CMa), a blue-white (O-type) supergiant; Rigel (ß Orionis), a blue-white (B-type) supergiant; Zeta Puppis (Naos), a blue (O-type) supergiant; 29 Canis Majoris; Alnitak; Alpha Camelopardalis; Cygnus X-1; Tau Canis Majoris and Zeta Puppis.
Wolf–Rayet Stars (WR stars) – are a rare heterogeneous set of stars with unusual spectra showing prominent broad emission lines of highly ionized helium and nitrogen or carbon. The spectra indicate very high surface enhancement of heavy elements, depletion of hydrogen and strong stellar winds.
Red Giant Stars – are of a spectral type M, K and have a typical age of ~0.1 – ~2 billion years. They are of low or intermediate mass, perhaps weighing in at between 0.3 to 10 solar masses. A Red Giant is a main-sequence star that has fused all its hydrogen into helium. K-type stars have surface temperatures of 3,700 – 5,200 K and M-type stars have surface temperatures of 2,400 – 3,700 K.
The Red-Giant branch (RGB) is the most common portion of the giant branch before helium ignition occurs in the course of stellar evolution. It then starts to burn its helium to produce carbon and oxygen, and expands to many times its previous volume to become a red giant.
The Horizontal branch (HB) is a stage of stellar evolution that immediately follows the red giant branch in stars whose masses are similar to the Sun’s. Horizontal-branch stars are powered by helium fusion in the core (via the triple-alpha process) and by hydrogen fusion (via the CNO cycle) in a shell surrounding the core.
The red clump giants are cool horizontal branch stars, (which were originally similar to the Sun), that have undergone a helium flash and are now fusing helium in their cores.
Asymptotic-giant-branch (AGB) is a period of stellar evolution that is undertaken by all low to intermediate mass stars (0.6–10 solar masses) late in their lives. The AGB phase is divided into two parts, the early AGB (E-AGB) and the thermally pulsing AGB (TP-AGB).
During the E-AGB phase, the main source of energy is helium fusion in a shell around a core consisting mostly of carbon and oxygen. During this phase, the star swells up to giant proportions to become a red giant again. After the helium shell runs out of fuel, the TP-AGB starts. Now the star
derives its energy from fusion of hydrogen in a thin shell, which restricts the inner helium shell to a very thin layer and prevents it fusing stably.
When a red giant has used up its helium to produce carbon and oxygen and has insufficient mass to generate the core temperatures required to fuse carbon, it sheds its outer layers to form a planetary nebula, and leaves behind an inert mass of carbon and oxygen. After a relatively short time (in the region of two hundred million years), the red giant puffs out its outer layers in a gas cloud called a nebula and collapses in on itself to form a white dwarf. Examples of red giants include Aldebaran, Arcturus and Gacrux
Red Supergiant Stars – are of a spectral type K, M and have a typical age of ~3 million to ~100 million years. They have a supergiant luminosity class of Yerkes I. They are the largest stars in the universe in terms of volume, although they are not the most massive or luminous. K-type stars have surface temperatures of 3,700 – 5,200 K and M-type stars have surface temperatures of 2,400 – 3,700 K.
Red supergiants have exhausted their supply of hydrogen at their cores and as a result, their outer layers expand hugely as they evolve off the main sequence. In rare cases, red supergiant stars are massive enough to fuse very heavy elements, (including iron), that are arranged around the core in a way that somewhat resembles the layers of an onion, only without sharp divisions.
Red supergiants that create heavy elements eventually explode as type-II supernovas. Examples of red supergiants include Alpha Herculis (Rasalgethi), Psi1 Aurigae, 119 Tauri, Antares, Betelgeuse, Mu Cephei and VV Cephei A.
Brown Dwarf Stars – are of a spectral type M, L, T and Y and their typical age is undetermined, but they are expected to be greater than 100 million years old. They are commonly referred to as “failed stars”. Brown dwarfs are sub-stellar objects that fill the gap between the most massive gas planets, and the least massive true stars.
M-type stars have surface temperatures of 2,400 – 3,700 K. With L-T-Y types no distinct temperature or luminosity values can be given. However, they are estimated as being… L-type stars surface temperatures of 1,300 – 2,400 K, T-type stars surface temperatures of 500 – 1,300 K and Y-type stars surface temperatures of 250 – 500 K.
Brown dwarfs have masses between approximately 13 to 75-80 times that of Jupiter (MJ) or approximately 2.5×1028 kg to about 1.5×1029 kg. Below this range are the sub-brown dwarfs, (sometimes referred to as rogue planets), and above it are the lightest red dwarfs (M9 V). Brown dwarfs may be fully convective, with no layers or chemical differentiation by depth.
Brown dwarfs are not massive enough to sustain nuclear fusion of ordinary hydrogen (1H) to helium in their cores. They are, however, thought to fuse deuterium (2H) and to fuse lithium (7Li) if their mass is above a debated threshold of 13 MJ and 65 MJ, respectively. It is also debated whether brown dwarfs would be better defined by their formation processes rather than by their supposed nuclear fusion reactions.
Although they may glow dimly when newly formed they soon start to cool and become very difficult to spot. Brown dwarfs are not very luminous at visible wavelengths and are actually of different colours. Many brown dwarfs would likely appear magenta to the human eye or possibly orange to red. They may actually be among the most common type of stars.
Planets are known to orbit brown dwarfs, such as: 2M1207b, MOA-2007-BLG-192Lb, and 2MASS J044144b. Examples of brown dwarf stars include Gliese 229 B, 54 Piscium and Luhman 16. Although brown dwarf stars exist in large numbers, Luhman 16 is the
closest known example, being only 6.5 light years away.
Dead Stars
White Dwarf Stars – are of a spectral type D and their typical age is undetermined, but estimated to be between ~100,000 years to ~10 billion years. They are stars, which have cores of low and intermediate mass (typically lower than 3 solar masses) and have blown off their outer layers late in their lives. White dwarf stars are small, dense, burnt-out husks of stars that no longer undergo fusion reactions and they represent the final evolutionary state of most of the stars in our galaxy.
These stellar remnants no longer produce energy to counteract their mass, and are supported against gravitational collapse by a process called electron degeneracy pressure. While the theoretical maximum mass of a white dwarf star cannot exceed 1.4 solar masses, (Chandrasekhar limit), this value does not include the effects of rotation. In practice, this means that rapidly spinning white dwarf stars can exceed the maximum mass limit by a significant margin. The effective surface temperatures of a White dwarf, extends from over 150,000 K to barely under 4,000 K depending upon
its energy levels. (K = Kelvin).
A white dwarf is also called a degenerate dwarf. It is a stellar core remnant composed mostly of electron-degenerate matter. A white dwarf is very dense; their mass is
comparable to that of the Sun, while its volume is comparable to that of
Earth. Near the end of its nuclear burning stage, this type of star expels most of its outer material, creating a planetary nebula. Only the hot core of the star remains.
Some types of white dwarfs, most notably carbon-oxygen stars, can also survive several nuclear explosions on their surfaces when the mass of accreted material pulled from normal companion stars exceed a critical level. Examples of white dwarfs include Sirius B, Procyon B, Van Maanen 2, 40 Eridani B and Stein 2051 B.
Black Dwarf Stars – are hypothetical stellar remnants that are theorized to be created when white dwarf stars have radiated away all of their leftover heat and light. However, it can take up till 10 billion years for this to happen. Which means that there is very little time for black dwarfs to have formed because the Universe is only 13.779 billion years old.
If these theoretical stars could one day exist, none of them would be found within the remaining lifetime of our Sun. They would also be incredibly difficult to detect due to a lack of radiation. Although they would still retain mass and with their gravitational influence would provide a clue to their origins in space.
Neutron Stars – are of a spectral type D and their typical age is undetermined, but estimated to be between ~100,000 years to ~10 billion years. The temperature inside a newly formed neutron star is from around 1011 to 1012 K (Kelvin). However, the huge number of neutrinos it emits will carry away so much energy that the temperature of an isolated neutron star falls within a few years to around 106 K (Kelvin).
They are the collapsed cores of massive stars, (between 10 and 29 solar masses), that were compressed past the white dwarf stage during a supernova event. In this state, the entire mass of the stellar remnant consists of neutrons, particles that are marginally more massive than protons, but carry no electrical charge. Neutron stars are supported against their own mass by a process called “neutron degeneracy pressure”. Smaller collapsed neutron stars will become white dwarfs.
But the process of gravitational collapse into a black hole may continue if the remnant has more than 3 solar masses. However, neutron stars with very high spin rates may be able to resist collapsing into black holes even if they have substantially more than 3 solar masses. Larger neutron stars, over about 5 solar masses, will collapse completely into a black hole singularity.
After a supernova explosion some neutron stars will emit regular pulses of radiation and are known as pulsars.
Examples of neutron stars include PSR J0108-1431 (closest neutron star); LGM-1 (the first recognized radio-pulsar); PSR B1257+12 ( the first neutron star discovered with planets); SWIFT J1756.9-2508 (a millisecond pulsar with a stellar-type companion with planetary range mass); PSR B1509−58 (source of the “Hand of God” is a pulsar approximately 17,000 light-years away in the constellation of Circinus) and PSR J0348+0432 (the most massive neutron star with a well-constrained mass of 2.01 ± 0.04 solar masses).
Pulsars – are often referred to as a class of star, but pulsars are merely energetic neutron stars that emit huge quantities of radiation in various frequencies.
Variable Stars – are stars that grow and shrink in
size periodically and appear to pulsate. The changes in apparent brightness may be due to variations in the star’s actual luminosity or to variations in the amount of the star’s light that is blocked from reaching Earth.
Black Holes – while smaller stars may become a neutron star or a white dwarf after their fuel begins to run out, larger stars with masses more than three times that of our sun may end their lives in a supernova explosion. The dead remnant left behind with no outward pressure to oppose the force of gravity will then continue to collapse into a gravitational singularity and eventually become a black hole. The gravity of such an object would be so strong that not even light can escape from it.
However, there are a variety of different black holes. Stellar mass black holes are the result of a star around 10 times heavier than the Sun ending its life in a supernova explosion. Super massive black holes found at the centre of galaxies may be millions or even billions of times more massive than the Sun. Examples of black holes include Cygnus
X-1, and Sagittarius A.
Star Disc
Star Disc’s are formations around stars and are
circumstellar, protoplanetary and proplyd in form.
Circumstellar Disc (circumstellar disk) – is a torus, pancake or ring-shaped accumulation of matter composed of gas, dust, planetesimals, asteroids or collision fragments in orbit around a star. Around the youngest stars, they are the reservoirs of material out of which planets may form.
Protoplanetary Disc – is a rotating circumstellar disc of dense gas and dust surrounding a young newly formed star such as a T Tauri star or Herbig Ae/Be star.
T Tauri stars (TTS) – are a class of variable stars associated with youth. They are less than about ten million years old. This class is named after the prototype, T Tauri, a young star in the Taurus star-forming region.
A Herbig Ae/Be (HAeBe) star – is a pre-main-sequence star. It is a young star of spectral types A or B. These stars are still embedded in gas-dust envelopes and are sometimes accompanied by circumstellar discs. Hydrogen and calcium emission lines are observed in their spectra.
Proplyd (ionized protoplanetary disc) – is an externally illuminated photo-evaporating disc around a young star. Nearly 180 proplyd’s have been discovered in the Orion Nebula.
Star Clusters
Globular Cluster (Globular) – is a spherical collection of stars that orbits a galactic core as a satellite. They are very tightly bound by gravity, which gives them their spherical shapes and relatively high stellar densities toward their centres.
Globular clusters are found in the halo of a galaxy. They are less dense then open clusters and contain considerably more stars, which are much older. Although it appears that
globular clusters contain some of the first stars to be produced in the galaxy, their origins and their role in galactic evolution are still unclear. It does appear that globular clusters are
significantly different from dwarf elliptical galaxies and were formed as part of the star formation of the parent galaxy rather than as a separate galaxy.
Globular clusters are fairly common. There are about 150 to 158 currently known globular clusters in the Milky Way, with more to be discovered. Larger galaxies can have more stars. The Andromeda Galaxy may have 500 globular clusters. Some giant elliptical galaxies, (particularly those at the centres of galaxy clusters), such as M87, have as many as 13,000 globular clusters. The Messier 80 globular cluster in the constellation Scorpius is located about 30,000 light-years from the Sun and contains hundreds of thousands of stars.
Every galaxy of sufficient mass in the Local Group has an associated group of globular clusters. And almost every large galaxy surveyed has been found to possess a system of globular clusters. The Sagittarius Dwarf galaxy and the disputed Canis Major Dwarf galaxy appears to be in the process of donating their associated globular clusters, (such as Palomar 12), to the Milky Way. How many more globular clusters might have been acquired in the past?
Open Cluster – they are stars found in the disc of a galaxy. They form a group of up to a few thousand stars, which were formed from the same giant molecular cloud and would be roughly the same age. They are loosely gravitationally bound to each other, in contrast to globular clusters, which are very tightly bound by gravity. More than 1,100 open clusters have been discovered within the Milky Way Galaxy and many more are thought to exist.
Stellar Stream – is an association of stars orbiting a galaxy that was once a globular cluster or dwarf galaxy that has now been torn apart and stretched out along its orbit by tidal forces.
Magellanic Stream – contains a gaseous feature dubbed the leading arm. It is a stream of high-velocity clouds of gas extending from the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds over 100 degrees through the Galactic south pole of the Milky Way.
Virgo Stellar Stream (Virgo Overdensity) – is the proposed name for a stellar stream in the constellation of Virgo, which was discovered in 2005. The stream is thought to be the
remains of a dwarf spheroidal galaxy that is in the process of merging with the Milky Way.
Galaxies
Galaxies can exist in clusters and Superclusters. A galaxy is gravitationally bound system consisting of a huge collection of interstellar gas, dust, stellar remnants, billions of stars and their solar systems and dark matter. Our galaxy, (the Milky Way), also has a super massive black hole in the middle.
Galaxy Cluster (cluster of galaxies) – is a structure that consists of anywhere from hundreds to thousands of galaxies that are bound together by gravity with typical masses ranging from 1014 – 1015 solar masses.
Supercluster – is a large group of smaller galaxy clusters or galaxy groups. They are among the largest-known structures of the cosmos. The Milky Way is part of the Local Group galaxy group, which contains more than 54 galaxies, which in turn is part of the Laniakea Supercluster.
Galaxies are divided into four main groups, ie: spiral, barred spiral, elliptical, and irregular. Galaxies can either form into a polar-ring galaxy or contain a quasar.
Spiral Galaxy – has a distinct winding shape. Most of the galaxies observed by astronomers are spiral galaxies. The arms of a spiral galaxy have lots of gas and dust, and they are often areas where new stars are constantly forming. The bulge of a spiral galaxy is a central
concentration of stars composed primarily of old, red stars. Very little star formation goes on in the bulge.
Barred Spiral Galaxy – is a spiral galaxy with a central bar-shaped structure composed of many stars. Bars are found in between one third and two thirds of all spiral galaxies. Galactic bars develop when stellar orbits in a spiral galaxy become unstable and deviate from a circular path. The tiny elongations in the stars’ orbits grow and get locked into place, forming a bar. The bar becomes even more pronounced as it collects more and more stars in elliptical orbits.
Galactic bars generally affect both the motions of stars and interstellar gas within spiral galaxies and can affect spiral arms as well. The Milky Way Galaxy is a typical barred spiral galaxy, much like billions of other galaxies in the universe. The Andromeda Galaxy (within the Milky Way) is also a barred spiral galaxy.
Elliptical Galaxy – These types of galaxies are the most abundant type of galaxies found in the universe. However, because of their age and dim qualities, they are frequently outshone by younger, brighter collection of stars. Elliptical galaxies lack the swirling arms of the spiral galaxies.
Irregular Galaxy – is a galaxy that does not have a distinct regular shape, such as a spiral or an elliptical galaxy. Irregular galaxies do not fall into any of the regular classes of the Hubble sequence. They are often chaotic in appearance with neither a nuclear bulge nor any trace of spiral arm structure.
Polar-ring Galaxy – is a type of galaxy in which an outer ring of gas and stars rotates over the poles of the galaxy. The ring contains many massive, relatively young blue stars, which are extremely bright. The central region contains relatively little luminous matter. These polar rings are thought to form when two galaxies gravitationally interact with each other.
Quasar (QSO or quasi-stellar object) – is an extremely luminous active galactic nucleus (AGN). It has been theorized that most large galaxies contain a super massive central black hole with mass ranging from millions to billions of times the mass of our Sun.
In quasars and other types of AGN, the black hole is surrounded by a gaseous accretion disk. As gas falls toward the black hole, energy is released in the form of electromagnetic radiation, which can be observed across the electromagnetic spectrum. The power radiated by quasars is enormous. The most powerful quasars have luminosities thousands of times greater than a
galaxy such as the Milky Way.
Star Constellations
A constellation is a group of stars that forms an imaginary outline or meaningful pattern on the celestial sphere, typically representing an animal, mythological person or creature, a god, or an inanimate object.
Origins for the earliest constellations likely go back to prehistory. Examples include the Pleiades and Hyades within the constellation Taurus and the False Cross split between the southern constellations Carina and Vela, or Venus’ Mirror in the constellation of Orion.
Enlightenment
How do you see the stars? What affect do they have on your life? Do you view them as God given to help you with the boundary of time? Or do you see them as just being the fusion of the random elements in space?
Could an entity from a higher realm of existence have simply seeded or planted our heavenly bodies?
Is there negative energy in space? Does positive energy and negative energy balance each other out, ie: = zero? Is there more mass in the universe than what is visible?
Scientists are postulating the existence of dark matter and dark energy in our universe due to observed irregularities in the make up of our universe. However, they do not know how or when dark matter and dark energy could have come into existence.
A quandary arose in the 1920’s when astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered that the universe is not static but expanding. In 1998 the Hubble Space Telescope was used to study very distant supernovas that occurred a long time ago. In doing so they realized that our universe was expanding more slowly than it is today. This was puzzling because it was thought that the gravity of matter in the universe would slow its expansion or even cause it to contract. Was there something not seen on the dark side?
In the 1960’s and 1970’s, astronomers began to think that there might be more mass in the universe than what is visible. During this time period astronomer Vera Rubinat observed the speeds of stars at various locations in galaxies. She found that all the stars in a galaxy seemed to circle the centre at more or less the same speed, which went against Newton’s Laws of Physics. Was the dark side influencing our universe?
The mysterious and invisible mass became known as dark matter due to the gravitational pull it exerts on regular matter. It is thought that this dark matter could be formed by exotic particles that don’t interact with light or regular matter, hence making it difficult to detect. Dark energy is thought to be the strange force that is pulling the cosmos apart at ever increasing speeds. But this dark energy remains undetected and shrouded in mystery.
Our early universe was smaller and denser than it is today. However a pattern of imperfections was observed due to the leftover glow of the cosmic microwave background. This pattern of imperfections required our universe to be made of about 27% dark matter, in comparison to only about 5% normal matter.
The Dark Age of our early universe came to an end at about 1 billion years after the Big Bang (12.799 Bya) with the end of the Reionization era. It is also thought that about 9 billion years ago the dark energy density was low enough that its effects on the Universe’s expansion rate were not noticeable. And that about 6 billion years ago the matter and dark energy densities were equal.
Today it is debated that the dark matter makes up 23 percent of the universe, whilst in comparison only 4 percent of the universe is composed of regular matter, which encompasses stars, planets and people. The strange pulling force of the cosmos known as Dark energy is thought to make up 73 percent of the universe.
Dark Matter and Dark Energy is one of the most hotly debated topics in cosmology today. It still not known what they really are or when they came into existence!
Our Dark Side
Do you have a dark side? How do you feel about the dark side? Do you think it to be either menacing or even sinister?
Ever since I can remember as a child the baddies were dressed in black and the goodies were dressed in white. Bad and/or evil things were in the dark and good things were in the light. The light always seemed to be the demise of bad things.
Our perception of good and bad seems to stem from the knowledge of a heavenly war when Lucifer challenged the position of God Head. About one third of the spiritual entities rebelled. Their fate was sealed when they were cast into the abyss and covered in darkness within the earthly realm. The “Watchers” whose tasks it was to spiritually help mankind, lusted over the women of Cain and those of Seth who erred in their ways. The angelic Watchers broke the spiritual code of conduct, manifested themselves and took the women as wives.
The result of the Watchers fornication was the corruption of mankind both spiritually and physically within their DNA. The women gave birth to the Nephilim (Giants), such as the Rephiam, Emim and Anakim. The flood of Noah was done to eradicate the Nephilim and carnal man from their known world. However, the spirits of these giants were to become earth bound demons. The demonic spirits were invoked when Ham and his son Cush fled from Noah and brought back the ways of before the flood.
Ham carried on in the knowledge of divination. Cush sought dominion and authority over people; he also sought to become a deity and promoted immorality. Nimrod originally walked in the way of God, but pride later snared him in the way of his father Cush. Nimrod revived the art of astronomy. Through Nimrod the satanic and pagan practices eventuated. The origins of the gods of old, paganism, mysticism, the occult and false church teachings seem to stem from the ways of Nimrod.
Nimrod was the origin of sun god worship. The sun gods were always depicted with rays of light around or above their heads. Nimrod married his mother Semiramus and had a son Tammuz. From Semiramus and Tammuz the false teachings of mother and son entered the Christian churches along with Christmas and Easter.
Semiramus was the origin of the Queen of Heaven, the goddess of love and fertility. She was offered raisin buns, as part of her worship, and over time she became the forerunner of Easter traditions. The birth of Tammuz was during the winter solstice of the northern hemisphere and over time became recognised as December 25th.
The problem today is that many people think that they are on the side of good but are unknowingly walking in the dark side. Many people are confused by biblical teachings because they find similar teachings that are written through a pagan perspective. The pagans either had no understanding of God and/or denounced Him.
Nimrod was known to challenge the way of God for he was a rebel who twisted the truth to suite himself. Paganism stems from Nimrod and the teachers and historians of old were either of Persian, Greek or Roman pagan ancestry.
Semiramis – Queen of Heaven The Woman riding the Beast in Revelation
Life today is a challenge. The truth is twisted and lies abound. Bad vibrations are all around and many walk in the dark side. If you are a seeker of biblical truth you must turn away from the misguided church and read the bible for yourself.
The truth is in the bible and other associated books such as the books of Enoch, Jubilees and Jasher. When reading the bible review the Old Testament for the New Testament is based on the knowledge contained in it. The books of Enoch, Jubilees and Jasher will give you more insight.
It is up to you to come out of the dark and enlighten yourself.
May you find the light and live a good life whilst waiting for your salvation.
Where do those electromagnet pulses come from that permeate our brain?
Why are there several realms of existence?
What are we all about?
Which ideology do we follow?
When do we realise our purpose in life?
How can we change our selves for the better?
Much subjective thought is require in evaluating oneself and our environment. But we are limited by our understanding, ego and perhaps beliefs.
This “Subjective Thought” blog is about the thoughts and understandings that I have accrued whilst trying to understand myself. I have questioned my existence and changed my life path several times and many things still remain unanswered, but time will tell.
The one thing that I know about a thought is this.
It is a seed that is planted in ones mind for either a cause or effect. One single thought can either create a strong belief or destroy a weak belief.
Do not be afraid to change a belief for a better cause.
So put your ego aside, open your mind, and dream a little. Let those righteous thoughts permeate your mind. Enjoy the life that you have to live.
